Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes, 14th Edition - PDF Free Download (2025)

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Organizations Behavior, Structure, Processes

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Organizations Behavior, Structure, Processes

Fourteenth Edition

James L. Gibson University of Kentucky

John M. Ivancevich University of Houston

James H. Donnelly, Jr. University of Kentucky

Robert Konopaske Texas State University

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ORGANIZATIONS: BEHAVIOR, STRUCTURE, PROCESSES, FOURTEENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2006, and 2003. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

E This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QDQ/QDQ 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 978-0-07-811266-9 MHID 0-07-811266-4 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Brent Gordon Vice President EDP/Central Publishing Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Editorial Director: Paul Ducham Managing Development Editor: Laura Hurst Spell Editorial Coordinator: Jane Beck Marketing Manager: Jaime Halteman Senior Project Manager: Lisa A. Bruflodt Buyer: Nicole Baumgartner Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Media Project Manager: Balaji Sundararaman Cover Design: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri Cover images: Business Women Sitting in an Interview: © Digital Vision RF; Reflection of Office Building: © CORBIS RF; Global Concept: © Brand X Pictures/Jupiter Images RF Typeface: 10/12 Times New Roman Compositor: Aptara®, Inc. Printer: Quad Graphics Photo credits: Ch. 1, Yuri Arcurs/Cutcaster; Ch. 2, Stockbyte/Punchstock Images; Ch. 3, Doug Menuez/ Getty Images; Ch. 4, Royalty-Free/CORBIS; Ch. 5, Stockbyte/Getty Images; Ch. 6, © Digital Vision; Ch. 7, Keith Brofsky/Getty Images; Ch. 8, Digital Vision/Getty Images; Ch. 9, Monica Lau/Getty Images; Ch. 10, Manchan/Getty Images; Ch. 11, © Digital Vision; Ch. 12, Ryan McVay/Getty Images; Ch. 13, Photodisc/Getty Images; Ch. 14, Ryan McVay/Getty Images; Ch. 15, Jon Feingersh/Getty Images; Ch. 16, Digital Vision/Getty Images; Ch. 17, Ryan McVay/Getty Images Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Organizations : behavior, structure, processes / James L. Gibson . . . [et al.].—14th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-811266-9 (soft cover : alk. paper) 1. Organization. 2. Organizational behavior. 3. Leadership. 4. Organizational effectiveness. I. Gibson, James L. (James Lawrence), 1935HD58.7.G54 2011 658.4—dc22

www.mhhe.com

2010050550

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John (Jack) M. Ivancevich (August 16, 1939–October 26, 2009): In Memoriam. Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Chair and Professor of Organizational Behavior and Management, C.T. Bauer College of Business, University of Houston; B.S. from Purdue University, and MBA and DBA from the University of Maryland. This book honors the memory of Jack Ivancevich, our finest friend, colleague, co-author, and cancer confidante. He put his heart and soul into this book for 13 editions and although he is not with us now, we know they are very much present in this 14th edition. Not only does he live on in this book, he lives on in our hearts. He was and remains the driving force of this team of authors. We miss you, Jack, and we hope you are proud of this edition. James L. Gibson and James H. Donnelly, Jr. The management discipline lost a passionate and award-winning educator, and an influential leader with an incomparable work ethic and sense of integrity. Jack led by example, and those of us who were fortunate enough to know him were inspired to work harder and reach higher than we ever thought possible. Jack was committed to higher education and the creation and dissemination of management knowledge. He was comfortable in the classroom and would encourage students to think critically about and apply the concepts and theories of organizational behavior and management to their lives. Jack had an “open door” policy, and spent countless hours helping students and answering their questions. His reputation as a tough teacher was softened by his appreciation for the need of many students to balance a desire for education with a full-time job and family demands. Among Jack’s most valued honors was the Ester Farfel Award for Research, Teaching, and Service Excellence, the highest honor bestowed to a University of Houston faculty member. Complementing his passion for teaching, Jack loved to write books. He tried to write at least 300 days a year, averaging about 1,200 words per day. Over a 40-year period, Jack reached well over a million students by authoring or co-authoring 88 books about various aspects of management and organizational behavior. Currently in its 14th edition, Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes (co-authored with James L. Gibson, James H. Donnelly, and Robert Konopaske) continues to be well received by students and instructors alike. In 2005, Organizations received the McGuffey Award from the Text and Academic Authors Association. This award recognizes textbooks and learning materials whose excellence has been demonstrated over time. A sample of Jack’s other textbooks includes Human Resource Management, Organizational Behavior and Management (co-authored with Robert Konopaske and Michael T. Matteson), Global Management and Organizational Behavior (co-authored with Robert Konopaske), Management and Organizational Behavior Classics (co-authored with Michael T. Matteson), Fundamentals of Management: Functions, Behavior, Models (co-authored with James L. Gibson and James H. Donnelly), and Management: Quality and Competitiveness (co-authored with Peter Lorenzi, Steven Skinner, and Philip Crosby). v

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Dedication

Jack was not only an accomplished educator and book author, but also a prolific and highly respected researcher. Well-known for his highly disciplined work ethic, Jack authored or co-authored some 160 research articles, which were published in such journals as Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, and Harvard Business Review. His research was highly influential and explored a range of management and organizational behavior topics, including job stress, white-collar crime, diversity management, global assignments, job loss, absenteeism, job satisfaction, goal setting, job performance, training method effectiveness, and organizational climate. The diversity of Jack’s research reflected the complex and inter-related nature of management issues in organizations. In 2000, in recognition of publishing a substantial number of refereed articles in Academy of Management journals, Jack was inducted into the Academy of Management’s Journals Hall of Fame as one of the first 33 Charter Members. This is an impressive achievement when considering that in 2000, the Academy of Management had approximately 13,500 members. In addition to teaching, writing books, and conducting research, Jack applied his knowledge of organizational behavior and management to the several leadership positions he held since joining the University of Houston faculty in 1974. In 1975, he was named Chair of the Department of Organizational Behavior and Management, and the following year, Jack became the Associate Dean of Research for the College of Business Administration at UH. In 1979, Jack was awarded the Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Chair of Organizational Behavior and Management, among the most prestigious positions at the University of Houston. From 1988 to 1995, he served as Dean of the University of Houston College of Business Administration. In 1995, Jack was named University of Houston Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs and Provost; a position he held for two years. Through visionary, performance-driven, and principled leadership, Jack left a lasting and meaningful imprint on the entire University of Houston community, including internal constituents, such as fellow administrators, deans, program directors, faculty, staff, and students, as well as external stakeholders, such as legislators, donors, alumni, and area company executives. His accomplishments were even more extraordinary given the fact that Jack continued to teach classes, write books, and publish research articles while holding these myriad leadership positions. Jack made innumerable contributions to all facets of higher education, all of which will be felt for years to come. Perhaps one of Jack’s greatest and longest lasting legacies will be from the many individuals he mentored during his 45 years in higher education. As busy as he was throughout his entire career, Jack was extremely generous with his time and made it a priority to mentor a large number of individuals, including current and former students, junior faculty, colleagues from the publishing industry, and many others. He wanted people to succeed and would do everything he could to help them accomplish their goals. Jack would often invite younger faculty members to collaborate with him on research projects. As a member of 80 doctoral and master’s committees, Jack relished his role as mentor and would spend hours with graduate students, helping and guiding them through the process of conducting original research for their theses or dissertations. Jack was always willing to make phone calls and write detailed letters of recommendation on behalf of his students to help them get hired or later in their careers, get promoted or be awarded tenure. He invested heavily in these individuals and expected hard work and commitment to excellence in return. Many of these former graduate students are professors at universities and colleges throughout the United States and now find themselves mentoring and inspiring their own students. On a personal note, Jack was my mentor, colleague, and friend. Words cannot capture how grateful and honored I feel to have worked so closely with him on several textbooks

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Dedication

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and research projects over the past 10 years. We became acquainted in 1999, after Jack agreed to be my dissertation chair at the University of Houston. Given Jack’s stature and commanding presence, I was a little intimidated by him in the beginning but quickly realized he was a “gentle giant” who could switch rapidly between discussions of research, books, academic careers, teaching, and the importance of being a good family man and father, and achieving balance in one’s life. Jack was a great storyteller and especially liked relating tales of his early years in the south side of Chicago. He taught me many things; some lessons were passed along during thoughtful conversations but most came by observing him in action. Jack taught me to take life “head on” with a strong, positive, and can-do attitude, while never losing sight of the importance of being a loving and committed husband and father. He will be sorely missed by all of us who were fortunate to have been touched by his warm friendship and guided by his generous spirit. Jack is survived by his wife of 37 years, Margaret (Pegi) Karsner Ivancevich; son Daniel and wife Susan; daughter Jill and husband David Zacha, Jr.; and grandchildren Kathryn Diane and Amanda Dana Ivancevich, and Hunter David Michael, Hailey Dana, and Hannah Marie Zacha. Jack was preceded in death by his beloved daughter Dana, and by his first wife, Diane Frances Murphy Ivancevich. Robert Konopaske Texas State University

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Preface The 14th edition of Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes is based on the proposition that managing people, structure, and processes in organizations is a challenging, compelling, and crucial set of tasks. In good as well as in difficult economic times, there is nothing boring about managing organizational behavior. Traditional approaches that worked a decade ago or even a few years ago are currently being questioned, modified, or replaced. This book will provide an opportunity for you to look inside organizations and to develop your own perspective and skills for managing organizational behavior. Your own perspective and approach will serve you in the positions you hold, the challenges you face, and the career choices you make. This edition of the award-winning Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes presents theories, research results, and applications that focus on managing organizational behavior in small, as well as large and global organizations. Through the successful history of the book, feedback from students and instructors has suggested that we have succeeded in presenting a realistic view of organizational behavior. A consistent theme throughout the book is that effective management of organizational behavior requires an understanding of theory, research, and practice. Given this theme, we view our task as presenting and interpreting organizational behavior theory and research so that students can comprehend the three characteristics common to all organizations—behavior, structure, and processes—as they are affected by actions of managers. Accordingly, we illustrate how organizational behavior theory leads to research and how both theory and research provide the basic foundation for practical applications in business firms, hospitals, educational institutions, government agencies, and other organizations. As dedicated teachers of organizational behavior and management, we are guided by student needs, feedback, and applications in real-world settings. The 14th edition is current, relevant, and offers a variety of techniques to encourage student involvement. The book challenges students to continue to explore the content areas long after they successfully complete their current course. This self-initiated exploration will result in the continuous learning and inquiry so that students’ knowledge, skills, and competencies are sharpened at each new juncture. We incorporate a clear, student-friendly style and presentation in making the management of organizational behavior insightful, meaningful, and realistic. The writing and presentation style used is successful in motivating students to engage in classroom analysis, discussion, and learning.

Special Features This edition emphasizes that the most successful managers in the global economy will be those who can anticipate, adapt, and manage change. The world and economic conditions change continuously, and the ability to manage behavior, structure, and processes in such a rapidly changing environment will be a premier competency. To help students deal with change better, we have included a significant amount of material on transformational leadership, diagnosing and assessing change, communication effectiveness, information technology, diversity, ethics, global management, organizational culture, offshoring, viii

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teams, and team building. Coverage of some of these topics began a few editions back and is further expanded in this edition. Some of the special content and features in this edition include: • Opening vignettes frame the start of each chapter. Real-world situations, events, facts, or problems bring out upcoming issues covered in the chapter’s content. These are the circumstances that managers of behavior, structure, and processes face every day. • A new feature, OB and Your Career, is intended to help students apply the concepts of this book to improving their careers. A sample of topics include: finding a job that fits with personality and work style; staying motivated after a layoff; being more efficient with time at work; and acquiring international business experience without relocating. • Hundreds of real-world situations, companies, and applied examples were added to illustrate how OB theory and research can be applied to actual work settings. Students prefer to have real examples to support what academics and researchers are proposing or stating. The real world is reflected in the chapter content, the OB at Work features, and the Cases for Analysis. • Student involvement with the World Wide Web is an element designated Taking It to the Net. This is an exercise requiring students to perform a specific assignment on the Internet. Each assignment is associated with a theory, research findings, management applications, an organization, or a topic area covered in the particular chapter. By completing the exercise, the student will become more comfortable with conducting research on the Internet and how classmates addressed the exercise. • Each year organizations become more involved in global business, global joint ventures, and global negotiations. This edition pays particular attention to global and ethical business issues in each chapter. • Diversity needs to be examined and managed in all organizations. Diversity management and issues such as the changing nature of employees in the workplace and generational differences between Gen Y, Gen X, and Baby Boomers are presented, debated, and analyzed throughout the text. • Teams, group dynamics, group decision making, leadership, and managing change are each important topics that are emphasized more in this edition. • One of the characteristics of every one of our new editions is that the latest thinking, debate, and insight be included. Content is updated in such areas as managing layoffs and the survivors of layoffs, the MBA oath of managerial ethics, cultural diversity, workplace spirituality, competitiveness, globalization, offshoring, empowerment, mentoring, organizational learning, organizational justice, performance-based rewards, managing information technology, virtual organizations, strategic decision making, innovation, flexible organizational and job design, contingency theory, ethical decision making, sexual harassment, politics and change, communication skills, feedback, entrepreneurship, and motivation. • Coverage of ethics has been greatly expanded. Ethical issues are covered in many parts of the book as well as in our OB at Work features and end-of-chapter material. As usual, every time we have revised this book there has been an emphasis on responding to the feedback received and the need for updating. The content in the field of organizational behavior and management is constantly changing and expanding. We want to capture currentness along with a sense of history. Thus, the revision work concentrated on using current concepts along with proven approaches to managing behavior within organizations.

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Preface

Teaching Resources Continuing attention to teaching also went into preparing the supplements for the book. In developing and testing our supplements, we continually focus on needs of both students and instructors. Simply, we want our supplements to add to students’ understanding while simultaneously enabling the instructor to teach an exciting course. The Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint® Presentation Software comprise a total system to enhance learning and teaching. All of these supplements as well as additional study tools for students are available at www.mhhe.com/gibson14e. In addition, The Organizational Behavior Video DVD offers a selection of videos that illustrate various key concepts from the book and explore current trends in today’s workplace. Also available for purchase with the text, Premium Content includes access to online Test Your Knowledge and Self-Assessments exercises as well as Manager’s Hot Seat. Manager’s Hot Seat is interactive, video-based software that puts students in the manager’s hot seat, where they apply their knowledge to make decisions on the spot on hot issues such as ethics, diversity, working in teams, and the virtual workplace. Resources to support these exercises and videos are located in the Group and Video Resource Manual.

AACSBI International© Guidelines The guidelines of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business International (AACSBI) guided the preparation of each revision. This book is used across campuses in business schools, social science disciplines, engineering, hotel and restaurant management, education, and public administration. We are pleased and honored by the many adoptions and the loyalty of instructors in many different disciplines. The AACSBI guidelines are used as a starting point for synthesizing management and organizational behavior as fields of study. These guidelines call for more of a crossdiscipline (e.g., psychology, sociology, engineering) approach. A cross-discipline approach is important because organizations are much more than simply business entities and institutions in which managing behavior, structure, and processes across functional areas poses numerous challenges.

Framework of This Edition The book is organized and presented in a sequence based on the three characteristics common to all organizations: behavior, structure, processes. This framework has been maintained based on the responses from numerous users of previous editions. However, note that each major part is presented as a self-contained unit and can therefore be presented in whatever sequence the instructor prefers. Some instructors present the chapter on structure first, followed by those on behavior and processes. The text is easily adaptable to these individual preferences. The book concludes with an appendix, which reviews research procedures and techniques used in studying organizational behavior.

Reviewers for This Edition Julie Bergh, University of Colorado at Denver; Lea Davis, Dallas County Community College; Jeannie Gaines, Brenau University; Bruce Gillies, California Lutheran University; David Leuser, Plymouth State University; Robert Steel, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor; James T. Ziegenfuss, Pennsylvania State University.

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Reviewers of Previous Editions Mel Minarik, University of Nevada-Reno; Dr. Norma Friedman, Indiana Institute of Technology; Consuelo M. Ramirez, University of Texas at San Antonio; Berrin Erdogan, Portland State University; Thomas J. Callahan, University of Michigan–Dearborn; and Robert P. Steel, University of Michigan–Dearborn. Allan E. Pevoto, St. Edward’s University; Robin C. Smith, Tarleton State University; David J. Cherrington, Brigham Young University; Mark Fichman, Carnegie-Mellon University; Harry E. Stucke, Long Island University; S. Stephen Vitucci, Tarleton State University; Courtney Hunt, Northern Illinois University; Macgorine A. Cassell, Fairmont State College; James W. FairfieldSonn, University of Hartford; Mitchell J. Hartson, Florida Institute of Technology; Mary Giovannini, Truman State University; Monty L. Lynn, Abilene Christian University; Jeffrey Glazer, San Diego State University; Eugene H. Hunt, Virginia Commonwealth University; William D. Murry, State University of New York–Binghamton; Stanley J. Stough, Southeast Missouri State University; William E. Stratton, Idaho State University; Harold Strauss, University of Miami; Harry A. Taylor, Capitol College; Betty Velthouse, University of Michigan–Flint; Diana Ting Liu Wu, Saint Mary’s College of California; Peter Lorenzi, Loyola College; Dr. Barry Friedman, State University of New York– Oswego; R. Andrew Schaffer, North Georgia College & State University; Paul Lakey, Abilene Christian University; and Andrzej Wlodarczyd, Lindenwood University. James L. Gibson John M. Ivancevich JamesH.Donnelly, Jr. RobertKonopaske

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Brief Contents Preface

PART FOUR

viii

The Structure and Design of Organizations 367

PART ONE Introduction

1

1

Managing Effective Organizations 2

2

Organizational Culture 29

3

Managing Globally

13

Work Design

14

Organization Structure 396

368

PART FIVE

55

The Processes of Organizations

429

PART TWO

15

Managing Communication

Behavior within Organizations: The Individual 85

16

Decision Making

17

Managing Organizational Change and Learning 487

4

Individual Behavior and Differences

5

Motivation: Background and Theories 123

6

Motivation: Organizational Applications 156

7

Managing Workplace Stress

86

Procedures and Techniques for Studying Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes 521

193

Behavior within Organizations: Groups and Interpersonal Influence 227 Group and Team Behavior

9

Conflict and Negotiation

228

Power and Politics

11

Leadership: Fundamentals

12

Leadership: Emerging Perspectives

GLOSSARY

534

ENDNOTES

543

NAME/COMPANY INDEX SUBJECT INDEX

261

10

xii

462

APPENDIX

PART THREE

8

430

290 312 340

605

595

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Contents Preface

viii

Summary of Key Points 25 Discussion and Review Questions 26 Taking It to the Net: Traditional versus New Economy Comparison 27 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: McDonald’s Attempting to Regain Its Effectiveness? 27

PART ONE INTRODUCTION

1

Chapter 1 Managing Effective Organizations

2

Global Account Managers: Multiple Skills Are Needed 3 OB AT WORK: Putting People First 5 Studying Organizational Behavior 5 Organizational Behavior Follows Principles of Human Behavior 6 Organizations Are Social Systems 6 Multiple Factors Shape Organizational Behavior 6 Structure and Processes Affect Organizational Behavior and the Emergent Culture 8 The Blending of the Art and Science of Organizational Behavior 8

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Research and Managers: Perfect Together! 9 A Model for Managing Organizations: Behavior, Structure, and Processes 9 The Organization’s Environment 9 Behavior within Organizations 10

OB AT WORK: Raising the Bar on Managerial Ethics 12 The Structure and Design of Organizations The Process of Organizations 13

12

29

Nike’s Culture Activists Attempt to Dampen Growth 30 Organizational Culture 31 Organizational Culture Defined

31

OB AND YOUR CAREER: New Job? Learn the Culture 32 OB AT WORK: Pfizer 33 Organizational Culture and Societal Value Systems 33 Organizational Culture and Its Effects

34

OB AT WORK: Five Best Places to Work Creating Organizational Culture 35 Types of Culture 37 Organizational Subcultures 38 Merging Cultures 38 Influencing Culture Change 39 Organizational Culture and Spirituality Socialization and Culture 42 Socialization Stages 43

Characteristics of Effective Socialization

Perspectives on Effectiveness 15 The Nature of Managerial Work 16

35

41

45

Effective Anticipatory Socialization 45 Effective Accommodation Socialization 46 Effective Role Management Socialization 47 Mentors and Socialization 47

Planning Effective Performance 17 Organizing Effective Performance 17

OB AT WORK: Another Day as a Manager

18

Leading Effective Performance 18 Controlling Effective Performance 19

Three Ways to Think about Effectiveness

Chapter 2 Organizational Culture

OB AT WORK: Mentoring Can Go Haywire 48 Socializing a Culturally Diverse Workforce 50 Management’s Ability to Capitalize on Diversity

19

Goal Approach to Effectiveness 20 Systems Theory Approach to Effectiveness 21 Stakeholder Approach to Effectiveness 22 Organizational Change and Learning 24

Managerial Work and the Behavior, Structure, and Processes of Organizations 24

50

Summary of Key Points 51 Discussion and Review Questions 52 Taking It to the Net: One of the Best Firms 52 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Toyota’s Culture and the “Sticky Pedal” Recall 52 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Testing National Culture Knowledge 53 xiii

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Contents

Chapter 3 Managing Globally

PART TWO 55

The Virtual Expatriate 56 Globalization 57 OB AT WORK: Offshoring: Does It Create or Replace Jobs in the Global Marketplace? 58 Global Strategic Skills 60 Team-Building Skills 61 Organization Skills 62 Communication Skills 62 Transfer of Knowledge Skills

62

National Culture 64 History and Culture 64

65

People’s Relationship to Nature 65 Individualism versus Collectivism 65 Time Orientation 65 Activity Orientation 66 Degree of Formality 66 Language 66 Religion 67

Cross-Cultural Research Findings Hofstede’s Research 67 Hofstede-Inspired Research The GLOBE Project 73

Cross-Cultural Transitions

Chapter 4 Individual Behavior and Differences A Grown-Up Risk Taker 87 The Basis for Understanding Behavior Individual Differences 90

86

88

Abilities and Skills 90 Demographics 91

OB AT WORK: Communicating in Global Virtual Teams 63 Culture 64

Cultural Dimensions

BEHAVIOR WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS: THE INDIVIDUAL 85

67

72

74

Human Resources for International Assignments 75 The Expatriate Manager 75

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Acquire International Experience the “Easy Way” 76 Culture Shock and the Expatriate Manager 78 Training the Expatriate Manager 79

The Global Theme for Organizations: Behavior, Structure, and Process 81 Summary of Key Points 81 Discussion and Review Questions 82 Taking It to the Net: Offshoring: What’s It All About? 82 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Building a Global Outsourcing Powerhouse 82 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: How Important Is Your Family? 83 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Expatriate Sources on the Web 84

OB AT WORK: Johnson & Johnson, AT&T, and Coca Cola: Leaders in Diversity Management 93 Individual Psychological Variables 93 Perception 94 Attribution 97 Attribution Errors Attitudes 99

98

OB AT WORK: Is Pay the Most Important Factor? 105 Job Satisfaction Comparison of Individuals in Work Arrangements 106 Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction 106 Personality 107

OB AT WORK: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Is Preferred by Managers 110 OB AND YOUR CAREER: Finding a Job that Fits 112 OB AT WORK: Gen Y Employees: Are They Changing the Workplace? 113 Emotional Intelligence

116

OB AT WORK: Emotional Contagion: A Lesson for the Emotionally Intelligent 117 The Psychological Contract 118 Psychological Contract Violations 118 Summary of Key Points 119 Discussion and Review Questions 120 Taking It to the Net: Evaluating Online Self-Tests 121 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: A Potter’s Wheel 121 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Applying Attribution Theory 121

Chapter 5 Motivation: Background and Theories 123 Motivating Generations of Employees 124 What Is Motivation? 126 The Starting Point: The Individual 127

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Contents xv

Motivational Theories: A Classification System Maslow’s Need Hierarchy 130 Selected Need Hierarchy Research

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

128

ERG: Limited Research Base

133

Research on Learned Needs

135

136

A Model of Individual Rewards

OB AT WORK: Women Managers: Better Motivators than Men? 137 A Synopsis of the Four Content Theories 138 OB AT WORK: Motivating Employees during a Recession 141 Expectancy Theory 141 Terminology 141 Principles of Expectancy Theory Research on Expectancy 144 Management Practices 144

143

Equity Theory

147

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Keep Your Surviving Employees in the Loop 150 Research on and Criticism of Equity Theory

150

Summary of Key Points 151 Discussion and Review Questions 152 Taking It to the Net: Generational Differences 153 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: What Motivates Entrepreneurs? 153 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Applying Motivation Theory 155

Chapter 6 Motivation: Organizational Applications 156

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Find the Right Job with the Right Rewards 180 180

Flexible Benefits 183 Banking Time Off 184 Skill-Based Pay 184 Gainsharing 185

Kohn’s Criticism of Performance-Based Rewards 186 Summary of Key Points 187 Discussion and Review Questions 188 Taking It to the Net: How about Noncash Rewards? 189 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Jack Welch of General Electric: A Neutron Bomb or a Motivator? 189 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Making Choices about Rewards 191 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Valuing Diversity 192

Chapter 7 Managing Workplace Stress

Reward or Punishment: The Saga of Stock Options 157 Learning 158

193

The Need for Work/Life Balance 194 What Is Stress? 195 Organizational Stress: A Model 196 Work Stressors: Individual, Group, and Organizational 198

Social Learning 158 Operant Conditioning 159

Principles of Operant Conditioning 160 Behavior Modification: A Managerial Perspective 162

Individual Stressors

198

OB AT WORK: Monotonous or Underloaded Pain and Stress 200

Research on Reinforcement Theory 164 Criticisms of Behavior Modification 164

OB AT WORK: Feedback Is Motivational

Extrinsic Rewards 177 Intrinsic Rewards 178

Reward Systems in High-Performing Organizations 182

145

146

Alternatives to Restore Equity

174

OB AT WORK: Rewarding a Diverse Workforce 176 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards 177

The Interaction of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards Rewards, Turnover, and Absenteeism 181 Rewards and Job Performance 182 Rewards and Organizational Commitment 182

OB AT WORK: Don’t Forget to Consider Nontraditional Rewards 145 Criticisms of Expectancy Theory

167

Reviewing Motivation 173 Organizational Reward Systems 174

135

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

166

167

The Goal-Setting Process 168 Goal-Setting Research 168 Criticisms of Goal Setting 172

132

Critique of Herzberg’s Theory

A Self-Regulation Model

Goal-Setting Theory

130

130

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Behavioral Self-Management

165

Group and Organizational Stressors Nonwork Stressors 202

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Stress Outcomes 202 OB AT WORK: Karoshi: Stress and Death in Japan Individual Outcomes

Why People Form Groups 232 The Satisfaction of Needs 232 Proximity and Attraction 233 Group Goals 233 Economics 233

203

203

OB AT WORK: Preventing Burnout Organizational Consequences

206

Stages of Development

206

OB AT WORK: The Costs of Job Stress Stress Moderators 208 Personality 208 Type A Behavior Pattern Social Support 210

207

Characteristics of Groups 209

Stress Prevention and Management

210

Maximizing Person–Environment Fit 211 Organizational Stress Prevention and Management Programs 212

OB AT WORK: The Costs of Job Stress, Part 2 215 Sustaining a Wellness Strategy 217 Individual Approaches to Stress Prevention and Management 217

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Reduce Stress: Be More Efficient with Your Time 218 Summary of Key Points 220 Discussion and Review Questions 220 Taking It to the Net: The Annual Physical Exam 221 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Stressed Out at Work? Help Is on the Way 221 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Behavior Activity Profile—A Type A Measure 222 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Health Risk Appraisal 225

BEHAVIOR WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS: GROUPS AND INTERPERSONAL INFLUENCE 227 Chapter 8 Group and Team Behavior Teams Can Change the World The Invention Team 229 The Twitter Team 229 The Apple Team 229 The Magic of an Idea Team

Formal Groups 231 Informal Groups 231

234

235

Structure 235 Status Hierarchy 235 Roles 236 Norms 236 Leadership 238 Cohesiveness 238

OB AT WORK: Groupthink and War Social Loafing

240

242

The Nature and Types of Teams Problem-Solving Teams Virtual Teams 243

243

243

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Want Some International Experience? Get Assigned to a Global Virtual Team 245 Cross-Functional Teams

245

OB AT WORK: The Earliest Skunkworks Skunkworks 246 Self-Directed Work Teams

246

247

Why Teams Are Formed 247 Enhanced Productivity 247 Flattening Organizations 248 Need for Flexibility and Quicker Decisions Workforce Diversity 249 Improved Quality 249

248

OB AT WORK: Group Diversity: Some Points to Consider 250

PART THREE

The Meaning of a Group Types of Groups 231

233

The Five-Stage Model 234 The Punctuated Equilibrium Model

228

229

Increased Customer Satisfaction 251 Obstacles to Effective Teams 251

Building Effective Teams

252

Top-Level Commitment and Provision of Clear Goals 252 Management–Employee Trust 252 Willingness to Take Risks and Share Information

Time, Resources, and a Commitment to Training 230

230

252

OB AT WORK: Team-Building Pointers (Learning from Geese) 253 Intergroup Behavior and Conflict The Role Concept 254 Multiple Roles and Role Sets 254 Role Perception 255 Role Conflict 255 Results of Role Conflict 256

254

253

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Summary of Key Points 256 Discussion and Review Questions 257 Taking It to the Net: Team Building 258 Case for Analysis: Leading a Virtual Team Experiential Exercise: Participation in and Observation of Group Processes 259

Chapter 9 Conflict and Negotiation

Resolving Group Conflict through Team Building 281 258

261

263

OB AND YOUR CAREER: How Do You Handle Interpersonal Conflict? 264 Dysfunctional Conflict 265 Conflict and Organizational Performance 265 Views on Intergroup Conflict in Practice 266 Intragroup Conflict and Group Productivity 267

Why Intergroup Conflict Occurs 267

Differences in Perceptions

270

Consequences of Dysfunctional Intergroup Conflict 271 Changes within Groups 272 Changes between Groups 272

Managing Intergroup Conflict through Resolution 273 Problem Solving 273 Superordinate Goals 273 Expansion of Resources 273 Avoidance 274 Smoothing 274 Compromise 274 Authoritative Command 275 Altering the Human Variable 275 Altering the Structural Variables 275 Identifying a Common Enemy 275

Managing Intergroup Conflict Through Negotiation 276 Cross-Cultural Negotiations 276 Group Negotiations 277 Prenegotiation Tasks 277 Negotiation Tactics 278 The Effect of Personalities on the Negotiation Process 279 The Role of Trust 280 Alternatives to Direct Negotiations 280

Communication 284 Bringing Outside Individuals into the Group Altering the Organization’s Structure 284 Stimulating Competition 285

269

284

Summary of Key Points 285 Discussion and Review Questions 285 Taking It to the Net: Negotiating Tips 286 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: A Successful Partnership at Ford-Mazda 286 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: The Old Stack Problem 287

Chapter 10 Power and Politics

Work Interdependence 268 Differences in Goals 268

OB AT WORK: Interdependence in Sports

282

OB AT WORK: Resolving Conflict through Team Building in a Small Computer Organization 283 Managing Intergroup Conflict through Stimulation 284

How Intergroup Conflict Can Affect an International Startup Team 262 A Realistic View of Intergroup Conflict 263 Functional Conflict

Team Building as a Process 282 Management’s Role in Building Teams

290

The Personal Power of Great Business Leaders Power and Authority 291 Interpersonal Power 292

291

Legitimate Power 292 Reward Power 293 Coercive Power 293 Expert Power 293 Referent Power 293

Need for Power 294 OB AND YOUR CAREER: Build Your Interpersonal Power 295 Structural and Situational Power 296 Resources 296 Decision-Making Power 296 Information Power 296

Upward Flow of Power 297 Interdepartmental Power 298 Coping with Uncertainty Centrality 299 Substitutability 300

298

Obedience to Authority 300 Political Strategies and Tactics Research on Politics

302

302

OB AT WORK: The Neighborhood Bully Is Back—At Your Workplace 303 Impression Management Playing Politics 305

Ethics, Power, and Politics

304

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OB AT WORK: Can Business Schools Teach Ethics? 308 Summary of Key Points 308 Discussion and Review Questions 309 Taking It to the Net: Office Politics 101 309 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Terry’s Dilemma 310 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Office Diplomacy: The Dos and Don’ts 311

Chapter 11 Leadership: Fundamentals

312

Nature of the Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model

Application of the New Model 346 Validity of the Vroom-Jago Model 347 International Research 347 Limitations of the Model 347

349

351

Defining Charismatic Leadership 352 Conger’s Model 352 What Constitutes Charismatic Leadership Behavior? 352 Two Types of Charismatic Leaders 352

319

OB AT WORK: Ethical Leadership during a Crisis 354 Transactional and Transformational Leadership 355

Job-Centered and Employee-Centered Leadership 319

Transactional Leadership 355 Transformational Leadership 356

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Becoming More Employee-Centered 320 Initiating Structure and Consideration Leadership 320

OB AT WORK: Indian Business Leaders Focus on Their People 322 Comparisons of Effective Leadership Behavior Theories 322

323

Contingency Leadership Model 324 Path–Goal Model 328 Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model

343

Leader’s Attributions 349 Leader’s Perception of Responsibility 349 Attributional Leadership Model 349 Leader Behavior: Cause or Effect? 350

317

The Effects of Situational Differences

341

OB AT WORK: The Roles of Leaders in SelfManaged Teams 346

Charismatic Leadership

OB AT WORK: Wanted: Global Leaders 318 The Behaviors of Effective Leaders

340

Leadership Cultures at Successful Companies Vroom-Jago Leadership Model 343

Attribution Theory of Leadership

Business Leaders: Born or Made? 313 Leadership Defined 314 Traits That Appear to Identify Leaders 316 Abilities 316 Personality Traits 317 Motivation 317 Synopsis of Trait Theory

Chapter 12 Leadership: Emerging Perspectives

331

OB AT WORK: Helping Women Become Leaders 332 Leader–Member Exchange Theory 334 Comparing the Situational Approaches 334

Summary of Key Points 335 Discussion and Review Questions 336 Taking It to the Net: Using Facts, Not Gossip 337 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: A New Leadership Position 337 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Personal and Group Leadership Hall of Fame 338 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Leadership Coach: Are Employees BOBs or WOWs? 338

OB AT WORK: A Leader Who Stands Up and Stands Out 357 OB AND YOUR CAREER: Become a Level 5 Leader 358 Substitutes for Leadership 359 Summary of Key Points 361 Discussion and Review Questions 361 Taking It to the Net: Leaders Need Guidance Too! 362 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Intel Prepares Its Top Leaders 362 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Vroom-Jago Leadership Style Analysis 364

PART FOUR THE STRUCTURE AND DESIGN OF ORGANIZATIONS 367 Chapter 13 Work Design

368

Designing Jobs to Allow Work/Family Balance 369 Designing Jobs to Enhance Quality of Work Life 370 Work/Family Balance and Job Design 371

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OB AT WORK: Job Sharing at Xerox: How Two Employees Made It Happen 373 The Important Concepts of Job Design 374 Job Performance Outcomes 375 Objective Outcomes 375 Personal Behavior Outcomes 375 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Outcomes 375 Job Satisfaction Outcomes 375

Describing Jobs through Job Analysis Job Content 376 Job Requirements 377 Job Context 377 Job Analysis in Different Settings

376

Functional Departmentalization 401 Geographic Departmentalization 403 Product Departmentalization 403 Customer Departmentalization 404 Combined Bases for Departmentalization: The Matrix Organization 404

Span of Control 405 OB AND YOUR CAREER: Tips for Managing Survivors of Layoffs 406 377

Required Contact

OB AT WORK: Six Sigma: Cure-All or Destroyer of Innovation? 379 Job Designs: The Results of Job Analysis 379

406

OB AT WORK: The Effects of Downsizing on the Spans of Control of Managers 407 Degree of Specialization 407 Ability to Communicate 407

Delegation of Authority 408

Range and Depth 379 Job Relationships 381

The Way People Perceive Their Jobs

382

Perceived Job Content 382 Job Characteristics 382 Individual Differences 382 Social Setting Differences 383

Designing Job Range: Job Rotation and Job Enlargement 383 Job Rotation 384 Job Enlargement 384

Designing Job Depth: Job Enrichment 385 OB AND YOUR CAREER: The Changing Nature of Jobs in America 388 Teams and Job Design 389 Total Quality Management and Job Design 389 Summary of Key Points 390 Discussion and Review Questions 391 Taking It to the Net: Search for a Good Fit? Online Job Descriptions 392 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Work Redesign in an Insurance Company 393 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Conducting a Basic Job Analysis 394

Chapter 14 Organization Structure

Designing an Organization Structure 399 Division of Labor 400 Departmental Bases 401

396

Organization Structure and Firm Survival 397 The Concept of Organization Structure 398 Structure as an Influence on Behavior 398 Structure as Recurring Activities 399

Reasons to Decentralize Authority 408 Reasons to Centralize Authority 409 Decision Guidelines 409

Mechanistic and Organic Models of Organization Design 410 The Mechanistic Model 410 The Organic Model 412

Contingency Design Theories 414 Technology and Organizational Design 414 The Classic Study of Technology and Organizational Design 415 Understanding the Relationship between Technology and Structure 416

Environment and Organizational Design 416 The Classic Study of the Relationship between Environment and Organizational Design 416 Environmental Uncertainty and Organizational Design in the Service Sector 418 Understanding the Relationship between Environmental Uncertainty and Structure 419 Environmental Uncertainty, Information Processing, and Adaptive Design Strategies 420

Sociotechnical Systems Theory 420 Structuring Virtual Organizations 421 Summary of Key Points 422 Discussion and Review Questions 423 Taking It to the Net: Virtual Organizational Design 424 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Defining the Role of a Liaison Officer 424 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Identifying and Changing Organization Design 427

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PART FIVE

Simplifying Language 456 Effective Listening 457

THE PROCESSES OF ORGANIZATIONS 429 Chapter 15 Managing Communication 430 Communicating in Global Virtual Teams 431 The Importance of Communication 432 The Communication Process

432

OB AT WORK: Communication Can Make the Difference 433 A Classic Model 434 Nonverbal Messages 436

Communicating across Cultures Words

437

437

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Learning about Different Cultures 438 Space 438 Time 438 Behavior 439

Communicating within Organizations 439 Directions of Communication 439 Communication and Technology 441 Electronic Mail, Messaging, Social Networking, and Blogs 442 Smart Phones 444 Voice-Mail 444 Videoconferencing, Teleconferencing, and e-Meetings/ Collaboration 444 The Grapevine: An Informal Communication Channel 445

Interpersonal Communication

Summary of Key Points 458 Discussion and Review Questions 458 Taking It to the Net: Netiquette: Effectively Communicating with E-Mail 459 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Leigh Randell 459 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Perceptual Differences 461

446

Interpersonal Styles 447 Interpersonal Strategies 448 Managerial Styles 448

Barriers to Effective Communication

449

Barriers Created by the Sender 449 Barriers Created by the Receiver 451 Barriers Created by the Sender, the Receiver, or Both 452

OB AT WORK: Intranets Improve Internal Communication 454 Improving Communication in an Organization 455 Following Up 455 Regulating Information Flow 455 Using Feedback 455 Empathy 455 Repetition 456 Encouraging Mutual Trust 456 Effective Timing 456

Chapter 16 Decision Making

462

Decision Making: Are You as Good as You Think You Are? 463 Types of Decisions 464 OB AT WORK: Falling in Love with Technology 466 The Decision-Making Process 466 Establishing Specific Goals and Objectives and Measuring Results 467 Identifying Problems 467 Developing Alternatives 468 Evaluating Alternatives 469 Choosing an Alternative 469 Implementing the Decision 470 Control and Evaluation 470

OB AT WORK: Do Good Companies Make Poor Decisions? 471 Behavioral Influences on Individual Decision Making 472 Ethical Decision Making 472 Values 474 Personality 474 Propensity for Risk 475 Potential for Dissonance 476 Escalation of Commitment 477

OB AT WORK: Henry Ford Established Fordlândia (“Ford Land”) in the Amazon! 478 Group Decision Making 478 Individual versus Group Decision Making 479 Techniques for Stimulating Creativity in Group Decision Making 480

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Sparking Your Creativity 481 Summary of Key Points 483 Discussion and Review Questions 483 Taking It to the Net: Can Better Decision Making Be Taught? 484 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Breaking the Rules 484 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Lost on the Moon: A Group Decision Exercise 485

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Chapter 17 Managing Organizational Change and Learning 487 Managing Change Is a Proactive Behavior Learning Principles and Change 489 Change Agents 490 External Change Agents 490 Internal Change Agents 491 External–Internal Change Agents

Resistance to Change

488

491

492

APPENDIX

Why People Resist Change 492 Reducing Resistance to Change 493

OB AT WORK: Overcoming Resistance to Change by Inclusion 494 A Model for Managing Organizational Change 494 Environmental Forces Internal Forces 496

Summary of Key Points 516 Discussion and Review Questions 517 Taking It to the Net: Monitoring Dramatic Changes 517 CASE FOR ANALYSIS: Bayer’s Major Changes in One Plant 517 EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE: Alternative Ways to Initiate Change 519

495

Diagnosis of a Problem 497 Alternative Interventions 497

History 521 Experience 523 Science 523

Behavioral Sciences Research and Methods

Depth and Approach of Intended Change

498

Identifying Alternative Change Techniques

499

Structural Change 499 Behavioral Change 501 Technological Change 503

Research 523 The Scientific Approach 524 Methods of Inquiry 524

Research Designs

OB AT WORK: Technology Change Creates Ethical Issues for Managers 505 Appreciative Inquiry 505 Trends in Organizational Change

Procedures and Techniques for Studying Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes 521 Sources of Knowledge about Organizations 521

506

OB AT WORK: Snapshots of AI Use and Claims 507 Recognizing Limiting Conditions 509 Overcoming Limiting Conditions 510 Leadership Climate 510 Formal Organization 510

OB AND YOUR CAREER: Managing Change, Step-by-Step 511 Organizational Culture 511 Resistance to Change 511

Implementing and Evaluating the Change 512 The Ethical Issues of Organizational Change 512 The Learning Organization 513 Learning Capabilities and Leadership Learning 516

514

528

One-Shot Design 528 One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design 529 Static-Group Comparison Design 530 Pretest–Posttest Control Group Design 530 Posttest-Only Control Group Design 531 Solomon Four-Group Design 531

Observation and Measurement Observation 531 Interviews 532 Questionnaires 532 Nonreactive Measures

Qualitative Research

Glossary

534

Endnotes

543

532

532

Name/Company Index Subject Index

531

605

595

523

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O N E

Introduction 1. Managing Effective Organizations 2. Organizational Culture 3. Managing Globally

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3

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 1, you should be able to Define The term organizational behavior. Explain Why organizations need to manage in an effective manner. Identify Why managing workplace behavior in the United States is likely to be different from managing workplace behavior in another country, such as Germany. Compare The goal, systems, and stakeholder approaches to effectiveness. Describe The type of environmental forces that make it necessary for organizations to initiate changes.

Global Account Managers: Multiple Skills Are Needed Attracting, retaining, and managing customers in a global marketplace are daunting tasks for even the most astute managers. It is difficult for a company to establish and maintain relationships with customers in their own neighborhood, state, region, or country. In terms of difficulty, the task is multiplied when customers are spread around the world. As globalization matures and grows, there are more opportunities to find and nurture customers. However, some of the traditional jobs, structures, and systems have to be modified. The notion of a global account manager was not a part of organizational infrastructures a decade ago. However, today the global account manager is center stage and growing in stature. The global account manager (GAM) in some cases is in charge of a single customer and all of its global needs. The customer’s needs, schedules, and interests are the top priority of the GAM. Some believe that it takes more than a decade to develop a responsive, effective, and profitable global account management system. Studies of DHL, Siemens, SAP, Marriott International, Microsoft, IBM, and others provide some suggestions of how an effective GAM system evolves. Three stages emerge in effective GAM systems: beginner, springload, and embedded. Beginners identify global accounts, assign managers, and change their structures in terms of communications, decision making, and problem solving to help the GAM succeed. In the springload stage, the GAM works with customers to develop new products and find ways to make the customer more competitive. In the embedded stage, the entire organization has developed a cooperative culture and global orientation. Serving the needs of the global customer is the top priority of the GAM. Microsoft started using GAM around 2000. Today, they focus on multimillion-dollar, global customers that rely heavily on information technology. Although size of the customer’s revenue is important, Microsoft wants to attract leaders in their industry—customers who are willing to openly share information for the development of new products and processes. Other firms develop their own set of criteria for establishing the GAM program. Sources: Adapted from “New Company of the Year,” Financial Times, February 16, 2008, p. 11; Christoph Senn and Axel Thoma, “Global Business: Worldly Wise,” Wall Street Journal Online, March 3, 2007; and Karen R. Polenske, The Economic Geography of Innovation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

Years ago, change was slow, markets were concentrated in a handful of countries, and stability was the rule rather than the exception. Back then, organizational approaches emphasized top-down hierarchy, rules and regulations, and authority rested in the hands of authoritative executives. Ford Motors, Nestlé, General Electric, and IBM—organizational

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organizations Entities that enable society to pursue accomplishments that can’t be achieved by individuals acting alone.

giants that dominated their respective markets—used a rigid hierarchy system from top management to operating-level employees to accomplish their goals. During the past 30years, many factors in the environment (such as government regulations, information technology, global competitors, union influence, and customer demands and needs) changed, and as a result, organizations needed to make dramatic adjustments in how they managed their operations. Unfortunately, in the 21st century some organizations have failed to change or adapt to their more turbulent environments. This inability to change with the times has decreased their organizational effectiveness. The opening vignette on global account managers illustrates how multiple skills are needed to grow operations globally. Adapting to change and flexibility are the requirements for managing effectively in a globally connected marketplace. This book is about organizations and how they operate effectively in a world that is rapidly changing.1 We will focus our attention throughout this book on people working within organizations or interacting with them from outside. People working together or contributing individually within organizations, large and small, have built pyramids, citystates, spacecraft, running shoes, automobiles, and entire industries. Each of us spends much of our life working for or conducting transactions with organizations—restaurants, universities, doctors’ offices, USAA Financial Services, Amazon.com, Southwest Airlines, United Parcel Service, Target, and the Internal Revenue Service are just a few examples. People and how they work individually and together are the focus of this book. The story of Aaron Feuerstein in the OB at Work feature on the next page clearly shows that putting people first can have dramatic positive effects for an organization and community. Another characteristic of the book is that it is globally oriented. That people work in organizations, produce goods and services, and contribute to a society is not a phenomenon found only in the United States.2 Americans are no smarter than Germans, nor are they better workers than Brazilians. The fact that the United States became such a productive nation is largely the result of the application of sound management practices and techniques. Americans planned efficiently, organized systematically, and led workers effectively. Also, Americans came up with new techniques, new methods, and new styles of management that fit well with the time, the workforce, and the mission. In the past 60 years, productivity improvement has been a major priority for most organizations. As we move further into the 21st century, managers around the world must recapture the feel, the passion, and the desire for being effective, for producing high-quality products, and for providing outstanding services. Unfortunately, the importance of managing human resources hasn’t always taken center stage. It is our strong belief that managing people effectively in organizations is the most essential ingredient for achieving organizational success, retaining a comfortable standard of living, remaining one of the world’s economic leaders, and improving the quality of life for all citizens.3 Whether we’re talking about a pizza parlor in Chicago, a glass manufacturing plant in Monterrey, Mexico, or a cooperative produce shop in Vilnius, Lithuania, management within an organizational setting is important. The clerk in the Lithuanian produce shop wants to earn a fair day’s pay for his work, the company president in Mexico has to purchase the best equipment to compete internationally, and the pizza parlor owner must motivate people to show up on time for work. These individuals’ work behaviors occur within organizations. To better understand these behaviors, we believe that we must formally study people, processes, and structure in relation to organizations. An organization is a coordinated unit consisting of at least two people who function to achieve a common goal or set of goals. This is what this book is about—organizations, large and small, domestic and global, successful and unsuccessful. Looking inside the organization at the people, processes, and structures will help enlighten the observer and will also reveal the inner workings of organizations that have been a main contributor to the standards of living enjoyed by people around the world.

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O B AT W O R K

Managing Effective Organizations

5

Putting People First

On December 11, 1995, a devastating fire swept through a mill complex in the heart of Lawrence, Massachusetts. Malden Mills, one of the few remaining textile firms operating in New England, owned the factory. The destruction threatened the 1,400 jobs at the mill. Another 1,600 jobs at plants in the community that did business with Malden Mills were also threatened. However, on the morning after the fire, the owner of Malden Mills, Aaron Feuerstein, promised his employees that their jobs were secure. He decided that Malden Mills would rebuild the ruined plant and would continue to provide full paychecks and medical benefits through the holiday season. The fire and its aftermath generated a lot of national attention. Feuerstein’s actions were praised, and he was regarded as a sensitive, caring leader. A few months later, a welder at the plant praised Feuerstein, “. . . with what he’s doing with Malden Mills, it’s an honor to work in this place.” Feuerstein’s philosophy of putting people first is reflected in his statement that

Putting people first was something that Feuerstein did with ease. In a region of the United States that had witnessed downsizing, reengineering, and outsourcing, Feuerstein’s behavior was embraced, applauded, and held in high regard. Feuerstein had faith in his workers and showed how important they were to him. Since the fire, Malden Mills has fallen on hard times. Economic conditions in Lawrence have deteriorated for the factories in the region. Unfortunately, the years after the fire were filled with debt and bankruptcy. Feuerstein was asked if he would do the same thing again. He said, “Yes, it was the right thing to do.” A memory that citizens will not forget, though, is how managers at Malden treated their employees after an unfortunate fire. This memory continues to be a part of the history of the region even though the factories continue to close down.

I have a responsibility to the worker, both blue-collar and white-collar. I have an equal responsibility to the community. It would have been unconscionable to put 3,000 people on the streets and deliver a deathblow to the cities of Lawrence and Matheren. Maybe on paper our company is worth less to Wall Street, but I can tell you it’s worth more. We’re doing fine.

Sources: Adapted from In Brief, Wall Street Journal, February 21, 2007, eastern edition, p. B.4; www.aish.com, accessed on April 2, 2007; Davis Bushnell, “Maneuvering for Control of Stronger Malden Mills,” Boston Globe, February 5, 2004, p. D1; “Malden Mills,” Industry Standard, July 24, 2001, p. 6; www.reputation-mgmt.com/malden.htm; and Richard K. Lester, The Productivity Edge (New York: Norton, 1998), pp. 213–14.

As the opening vignette illustrates, the expectations of consumers are changing. Organizations must be prepared to deal with consumer needs for social responsibility, good citizenship, and responsible management and leadership. The array of stakeholders applying pressure suggests that managing organizational behavior can be challenging and rewarding for managers.

Studying Organizational Behavior organizational behavior (OB) The field of study that draws on theory, methods, and principles from various disciplines to learn about individuals’ perceptions, values, learning capacities, and actions while working in groups and within the organization and to analyze the external environment’s effect on the organization and its human resources, missions, objectives, and strategies.

Why does Ric Nunzio always seem to hire older employees for his pizza parlor? Why is Selena Rodriguez the best decision maker in selecting what piece of equipment to purchase for her glass manufacturing plant? Why does Val Kupolus always complain that he’s not paid enough to sell produce at the Vilnius produce stand? Such questions are studied, analyzed, and debated in the field called organizational behavior (OB). The formal study of organizational behavior began between 1948 and 1952. This still-emerging field attempts to help managers understand people better so that productivity improvements, customer satisfaction, and a better competitive position can be achieved through better management practices. The behavioral sciences—especially psychology, sociology, political science, and cultural anthropology—have provided the basic framework and principles for the field of organizational behavior. Each behavioral science discipline provides a slightly different focus, analytical framework, and theme for helping managers answer questions about themselves, nonmanagers, and environmental forces (e.g., competition, legal requirements, and social/political changes).

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The multidisciplinary definition of organizational behavior illustrates a number of points. First, OB indicates that behaviors of people operate at individual, group, and organizational levels. This approach suggests that when studying OB we must identify clearly the level of analysis being used—individual, group, organizational, or all three. Second, OB is multidisciplinary; it uses principles, models, theories, and methods from other disciplines. The study of OB isn’t a discipline or a generally accepted science with an established theoretical foundation. It’s a field that only now is beginning to grow and develop in stature and impact. Third, there’s a distinctly humanistic orientation within organizational behavior. People and their attitudes, perceptions, learning capacities, feelings, and goals are important to the organization. Fourth, the field of OB is performance oriented. Why is performance low or high? How can performance be improved? Can training enhance on-the-job performance? These are important issues facing managers. Fifth, the external environment is seen as having significant effect on organizational behavior. Sixth, because the field of OB relies heavily on recognized disciplines, the scientific method is important in studying variables and relationships. As the scientific method has been applied to research on organizational behavior, a set of principles and guidelines on what constitutes good research has emerged.4 Finally, the field has a distinctive applications orientation; it concerns providing useful answers to questions that arise in the context of managing operations.

Organizational Behavior Follows Principles of Human Behavior The effectiveness of any organization is influenced greatly by human behavior. People are a resource common to all organizations. The pizza parlor, the glass manufacturing plant, and the produce stand employ human assets and interact with people such as customers, suppliers, and job candidates. One important principle of psychology is that each person is different. Each has unique perceptions, personality, and life experiences. People have different ethnic backgrounds; different capabilities for learning and for handling responsibility; and different attitudes, beliefs, and aspiration levels. We’ve moved from an era in which large portions of the workforce were middle-aged men who spoke only English to an era of diversity. Today’s workforce doesn’t look, think, or act like the workforce of the past.5 To be effective, managers of organizations must view each employee or member as a unique embodiment of all these behavioral and cultural factors.

Organizations Are Social Systems The relationships among individuals and groups in organizations create expectations for individuals’ behavior. These expectations result in certain roles that must be performed. Some people must perform leadership roles, whereas others must participate in the roles of followers. Middle managers, because they have both superiors and subordinates, must perform both roles. Organizations have systems of authority, status, and power, and people in organizations have varying needs from each system. Groups in organizations also have a powerful impact on individual behavior and on organizational performance. contingency approach Approach to management that believes there’s no one best way to manage in every situation and managers must find different ways that fit different situations.

Multiple Factors Shape Organizational Behavior A person’s behavior in any situation involves the interaction of that individual’s personal characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. Thus, identifying all of the factors is time-consuming and difficult; frequently, the task is impossible. To help us identify the important managerial factors in organizational behavior, we use the contingency (or situational) approach. The basic idea of the contingency approach is that there’s not one best way to manage; a method that’s very effective in one

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situation may not work at all in others. The contingency approach has grown in popularity because research has shown that given certain characteristics of a job and certain characteristics of the people doing the job, some management practices work better than others. Thus, the Mexican glass manufacturing plant’s manager of operations faced with a poorly performing group doesn’t assume that a particular approach will work. In applying the contingency approach, he diagnoses the characteristics of the individuals and groups involved in the organizational structure, and his own leadership style, before deciding on a solution. Organizational behavior has evolved into an applied set of behavioral science concepts, models, and techniques. The predominant contributors to OB—psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology—have contributed to our understanding and use of OB in organizational settings. Figure 1.1 presents an illustration of some of the major contributions of the behavioral sciences to the study and application of OB.

FIGURE 1.1 Contributions to the Study and Application of OB Behavior science

Topic, model, technique contributed

Psychology

• Perception • Values • Attitudes • Learning • Job design • Individual difference analysis

• Recruitment • Selection • Motivation • Stress • Reward systems • Evaluation and feedback

• Organization theory • Organization culture • Group development • Group characteristics • Intergroup analysis and conflict

• Power • Work teams • Self-managed teams • Change • Communication

• Behavioral change • Attitude change • Group processes

• Group effectiveness • Group decision making • Groupthink

• Influence tactics • Power and ethics • Political strategies

• Empowerment • Conflict resolution • Illusion of power

A science that attempts to study, explain, and at times modify behavior. Sociology The study of group behavior and how people relate to each other.

Social psychology A behavioral science area that focuses on how individuals influence each other.

Political science The study of the behavior of individuals and groups within a political framework. Anthropology The study of societies to learn about values, attitudes, and behavior of people within different settings, cultures, and countries.

Level of focus or analysis

Individual

Group

Organization • Cross-cultural communications • Cross-cultural analysis

• Values and morals • Comparative analysis

Field of organizational behavior

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To help you learn how to manage individuals and groups as resources of organizations, this book focuses on the behavior of individuals and groups, organizational structure and job design, and processes. Developing the model presented in this book required the use of several assumptions. These assumptions are explained briefly in the following paragraphs, which precede the model.6

Structure and Processes Affect Organizational Behavior and the Emergent Culture structure Blueprint that indicates how people and jobs are grouped together in an organization. Structure is illustrated by an organization chart.

processes Activities that breathe life into organization structure. Common processes are communication, decision making, socialization, and career development.

An organization’s structure is the formal pattern of how its people and jobs are grouped. Structure often is illustrated by an organization chart. Processes are activities that give life to the organization chart. Communication, decision making, and organization development are examples of processes in organizations. Sometimes, understanding process problems such as breakdowns in communication and decision making will result in a more accurate understanding of organizational behavior than will simply examining structural arrangements. The pattern of basic assumptions used by individuals and groups to deal with the organization and its environment is called its culture. In straightforward terms, the organization’s culture is its personality, atmosphere, or “feel.” The culture of an organization defines appropriate behavior and bonds; it motivates individuals; and it governs the way a company processes information, internal relations, and values. It functions at all levels from the subconscious to the visible. A firm’s culture has been likened to one of those inkblots in which we see what we want to see.7 A firm’s culture results in shared thoughts, feelings, and talk about the organization.8 Nike employees share norms about the dress code, business practices, and promotion systems. Wal-Mart associates share emotions about working for the chain and coming to work on time with a positive attitude. It’s the sharing that bonds employees together and creates a feeling of togetherness.9 Cultures of organizations can be positive or negative. An organization’s culture is positive if it helps improve productivity. A negative culture can hinder behavior, disrupt group effectiveness, and hamper the impact of a well-designed organization. Effective managers know what to look for in terms of structure, process, and culture and how to understand what they find. Therefore, managers must develop diagnostic skills; they must be trained to identify conditions symptomatic of a problem requiring further attention. Problem indicators include declining profits, declining quantity or quality of work, increases in absenteeism or tardiness, and negative employee attitudes. Each of these problems is an issue of organizational behavior.

The Blending of the Art and Science of Organizational Behavior There is no set of universal prescriptions that can predict every behavior, team outcome, or organizational phenomenon. People are typically unique and unpredictable in some aspects of their behavior. In physics there are laws, formulas, and mathematical procedures that apply to a wide range of situations. The speed of a vehicle traveling down a hill can be calculated, and the answer applies to similar hills, cars, and conditions. Organizational behavior is not as stable or predictable as physics. OB is different because it deals with human beings in work settings. The body of OB knowledge is being expanded by researchers as they study and report on individual, group, and organizational behavior. The art of organizational behavior application is beginning to blend with empirically-based research. Managers carry out roles that can be successfully accomplished if they skillfully apply the best available knowledge to the situation at hand. These views of the work of management suggest that art and science can be blended to solve problems. Therefore, effectively

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

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Research and Managers: Perfect Together!

Many managers make decisions based on intuition and “gut feel.” Some of these same managers avoid or undervalue suggestions and tips that originate from empirical studies conducted by researchers from such entities as business schools and/or consulting practices. Although we see the value of intuition, we also feel that science can help managers make better decisions at the workplace. Examples of research findings include: 1. Goal setting is an effective way to improve employee performance. 2. Structured interviews (i.e., ask the same job-related questions of each candidate, use benchmark scoring, etc.) have been found to be more valid than unstructured job interviews. 3. Intelligence is a good predictor of job performance.

Managing Effective Organizations

What’s the bottom line? New and experienced managers alike can be more successful if they take the time to learn and apply some of the key research findings from the management and organizational behavior literatures. Such articles can be found with a few keyword searches using a university library business database or a search engine like Google Scholar. One tip is to look for recent summary articles that review the management and organizational behavior research over the past 10 years or so. Get ahead by being informed! Sources: John Humphreys, Jennifer Oyler, Mildred Pryor, and Stephanie Haden, “Lost in Translation: From B-School to Business,” The Journal of Business Strategy, 31, no. 2, (2010): 13–17; Robert J. Grossman, “Close the Gap Between Research and Practice,” HRMagazine, November 2009, pp. 31–36; Sara L. Rynes, Tamara L. Giluk, and Kenneth G. Brown, “The Very Separate Worlds of Academic and Practitioner Periodicals in Human Resource Management: Implications for Evidence-Based Management,” Academy of Management Journal 50, no. 5 (2007), pp. 987–1008.

managing in any situation or organization requires the deft touch of an artist and excellent execution of specific and proven behaviors. As the OB and Your Career above suggests, managers who ignore science or art are not likely to be effective or respected.10 To be and remain effective, managers must apply knowledge. The application and execution of knowledge can be designated as competencies. Included in these important competencies are intellectual capability, a systems orientation, interpersonal skills, flexibility, and self-motivation.

A Model for Managing Organizations: Behavior, Structure, and Processes The Organization’s Environment Within a society, many factors influence an organization, and management must be responsive to them. Every organization must respond to the needs of its customers or clients, to legal and political constraints, and to economic and technological changes. Environmental forces interact with organization factors. Economic and market circumstances and technological innovations make up an organization’s environment, as do federal, state, and local legislation and political, social, and cultural conditions external to the organization. Together, these components of an environment influence how an organization operates and also how it is structured. Managers increasingly work in an unpredictable economic environment. It is now important for managers to respond quickly to changing economic conditions in other countries. Also, the dramatic and unexpected consequences of technological innovations require astute management attention and action. For example, since the transistor was invented in 1947, digital technology has been evolving faster and computing devices are getting smaller, cheaper, and more powerful. These devices, combined with databases, multimedia interfaces, and software, are affecting every profession, company, and business practice.

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Increased government regulations have affected management’s actions in production and employment practices. Foreign trade tariffs, occupational safety and health guidelines, and equal employment opportunities influence the way a firm conducts business.

Behavior within Organizations The Individual Individual performance is the foundation of organizational performance. Understanding individual behavior is therefore critical for effective management, as illustrated in the following account: Ted has been a field representative for a major drug manufacturer since he graduated from college seven years ago. He makes daily calls on physicians, hospital, clinics, and pharmacies. Ted’s sales of his firm’s major drugs have increased, and he has won three national sales awards given by the organization. Yesterday, Ted was promoted to sales manager for a seven-state region. He’ll no longer be selling but instead will be managing 15 other representatives. His sales team includes men and women, Caucasians, Hispanics, Blacks, and Asians. Ted accepted the promotion because he believes he knows how to motivate and lead salespeople. He comments, “I know the personality of the salesperson. They are special people. I know their values and attitudes and what it takes to motivate them. I know I can motivate a sales force.”

In his job, Ted will be trying to maximize the individual performances of 15 sales representatives. In doing so, he will be dealing with several facets of individual behavior. Individual Characteristics Because organizational performance depends on individual performance, managers such as Ted must have more than a passing knowledge of the determinants of individual performance. Psychology and social psychology contribute relevant knowledge about the relationships among attitudes, perceptions, personality, values, and individual performance. Learning to manage cultural diversity, such as that found among Ted’s 15 sales representatives, has become increasingly important in recent years. Managers can’t ignore the need to acquire and act on knowledge of the individual characteristics of both their subordinates and themselves. Individual Motivation Motivation and ability to work interact to determine performance. Motivation theory attempts to explain and predict how individuals’ behavior is aroused, sustained, and stopped. Unlike Ted Johnson, not all managers and behavioral scientists agree on what is the best theory of motivation. In fact, the complexity of motivation may make an all-encompassing theory of how it occurs impossible. But managers must still try to understand it. They must be concerned with motivation because they must be concerned with performance. Rewards and Appraisal One of the most powerful influences on individual performance is an organization’s reward system. Management can use rewards to increase current employees’ performance. It can also use rewards to attract skilled employees to the organization. Performance appraisals, paychecks, raises, and bonuses are important aspects of the reward system, but they aren’t the only aspects. Ted makes this point clear in the preceding account when he states, “I know what it takes to motivate them.” Performance of the work itself can provide employees with rewards, particularly if job performance leads to a sense of personal responsibility, autonomy, and meaningfulness. These intrinsic rewards are also supplemented with extrinsic rewards, or what an organization, a manager, or a group can provide a person in terms of monetary and nonmonetary factors.

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Groups and Interpersonal Influence Group behavior and interpersonal influence are also powerful forces affecting organizational performance, as the following account shows: During her two and one-half years as a teller in a small-town bank in Fort Smith, Arkansas, Kelly developed close friendships with her co-workers. These friendships existed outside the job as well. Two months ago Kelly was promoted to branch manager. She was excited about the new challenge. She began the job with a great deal of optimism and believed her friends would be genuinely happy for her and supportive of her efforts. But since she became branch manager, things haven’t been quite the same. Kelly can’t spend nearly as much time with her friends because she’s often away from the branch attending management meetings at the main office. Kelly senses that some of her friends have been acting a little differently toward her lately. Recently Kelly said, “I didn’t know that being a part of the management team could make that much difference. Frankly, I never really thought about it. I guess I was naïve. I’m getting a totally different perspective on the business and have to deal with problems I never knew about.”

Kelly’s promotion has made her a member of more than one group. In addition to being part of her old group of friends at the branch, she’s also a member of the management team. She’s finding out that group behavior and expectations have a strong impact on individual behavior and interpersonal influence. Group Behavior Groups form because of managerial action and because of individual efforts. Managers create work groups to carry out assigned jobs and tasks. Such groups, created by managerial decisions, are termed formal groups. The group that Kelly manages at her branch is a group of this kind. Groups also form as a consequence of employees’ actions. Such groups, termed informal groups, develop around common interests and friendships. Kelly’s bowling group is an informal group. Although not a part of the organization, groups of this kind can affect organizational and individual performance. The effect can be positive or negative, depending on the group members’ intentions. If the group at Kelly’s branch decided informally to slow the work pace, this norm would exert pressure on individuals who wanted to remain a part of the group. Effective managers recognize the consequences of individuals’ needs for affiliation. Intergroup Behavior and Conflict As groups function and interact with other groups, each develops a unique set of characteristics, including structure, cohesiveness, roles, norms, and processes. The group in essence creates its own culture. As a result, groups may cooperate or compete with other groups, and intergroup competition can lead to conflict. If the management of Kelly’s bank instituted an incentive program with cash bonuses to the branch bringing in the most new customers, this might lead to competition and conflict among the branches. Although conflict among groups can have beneficial results for an organization, too much or the wrong kinds of intergroup conflict can have negative results. Thus, managing intergroup conflict is an important aspect of managing organizational behavior. Power and Politics Power is the ability to get someone to do something you want done or to make things happen in the way you want them to happen. Many people in our society are uncomfortable with the concept of power. Some are deeply offended by it. This is because the essence of power is control over others. To many Americans and a growing number of people around the world, this is an offensive thought. But power does exist in organizations. Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. Kelly has power by virtue of her position in the formal hierarchy of the bank. She controls performance evaluations and salary increases. However, she may

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O B AT W O R K

Raising the Bar on Managerial Ethics

In the wake of corporate and financial scandals, and a persistent recession that has devastated the U.S. job market, corporate leaders and managers have received their share of the blame. This is partly due to the perception that many leaders placed greed and short-term profits well before the needs of their key stakeholders (e.g., employees, customers, and the communities in which they operate). There seems to be a shift in public sentiment over the past few years in that businesses should focus on more than just making a profit. This shift has led to an increase in negative press about the lack of professionalism in the management profession. Caught in this negative fallout are MBA programs that have been criticized for not doing enough to create managers and leaders who take a more humanistic and ethical approach to leading and managing organizations. Students who graduate with MBAs have been criticized for not maintaining strong ethical standards when they reach positions of power in companies. To address these negative perceptions and critics, in June 2009, a team of Harvard Business School (HBS) graduating MBA students led by Max Anderson and Peter Escher developed an “MBA Oath.” The following is an excerpt from the oath: As a manager, my purpose is to serve the greater good by bringing people and resources together to create value that no single individual can build alone. Therefore I will seek a course that enhances the value my enterprise can create for society over the long term.

Anderson and Escher’s original goal was to collect 100 signatures (or 10 percent) from members of the HBS graduating class but instead collected more than 500 signatures (over 50 percent). Supported by Harvard’s dean, the MBA Oath (also referred to as a “Hippocratic oath for managers”) concept is spreading to several other business schools throughout the United States and internationally. Will MBA oaths help change the “greed is good” thinking that has been part of many managers’ thinking for many decades? It is too early to tell. The oath seems to underscore the idea that “maximizing shareholder value” may contribute to managerial decision-making that leads to short-term opportunism but damages the long-term prospects, health, and profitability of the organizations. This opportunism seems to be giving way to a more humanistic approach to running enterprises. Perhaps, managers and leaders will reject the “greed is good” mantra and instead support a more ethical and integritydriven approach to management. Sources: http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2009/06/why_we_created_the_ mba_oath.html (accessed on June 26, 2010); Michael A. Pirson and Paul R. Lawrence, “Humanism in Business – Towards a Paradigm Shift?” Journal of Business, 93, no. 4 (2010), pp. 553–565; “Forswearing Greed: A Hippocratic Oath for Managers,” The Economist, June 6, 2009, p. 66; Michael Lewis, “Michael Lewis on Wall Street Oath-Taking,” Businessweek, June 14, 2010, p. 1; Philip Delves, “A Worthy Attempt at Swearing to a Higher Standard,” Financial Times, April 22, 2010, p. 12.

also have power because her co-workers respect and admire her abilities and expertise. Managers must become comfortable with the concept of power as a reality in organizations and managerial roles. Leadership Leaders exist within all organizations. They may be found in formal groups, like Kelly’s management team at the bank, or in informal groups. They may be managers or nonmanagers. The importance of effective leadership for obtaining individual, group, and organizational performance is so critical that there has been much effort to determine the causes of such leadership. Some people believe that effective leadership depends on traits and certain behaviors, separately and in combination; other people believe that one leadership style is effective in all situations; still others believe that each situation requires a special leadership style. Quality and leadership concepts have been found to be inseparable. Without effective leadership practices, instilling concern about customer-focused quality is difficult, if not impossible. The OB at Work feature above discusses how some future business leaders are broadening their personal definitions of effectiveness and success.

The Structure and Design of Organizations To achieve organizational effectiveness, managers must clearly understand the organizational structure. Viewing an organization chart on a piece of paper or frame on a wall, we

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see only a configuration of positions, job duties, and lines of authority among the parts of an organization. However, organizational structure can be far more complex, as the following account shows: Dan was appointed vice president of quality at a small manufacturing shop in Orange, New Jersey. He spent about three months studying the organization that produces generator parts sold throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, Poland, Hungary, and Russia. Dan wants to instill more of a teamwork concept and an interest in quality improvement. This would be quite a change from the present rigid departmental structure that now exists in the company. His unit leaders are Hispanic, Italian, German, and Vietnamese. They each have voiced opinions that management discriminates against them and isn’t ethnically aware. Dan wants to correct this perception and wants each unit leader to be a part of his team. He must change perceptions, redesign the organization, develop a team spirit, and produce high-quality products in an increasingly competitive market.

An organization’s structure is the formal pattern of activities and interrelationships among the various subunits of the organization. This book discusses two important aspects of organizational structure: job design and organizational design.

Job Design Job design refers to the process by which managers specify the contents, methods, and relationships of jobs to satisfy both organizational and individual requirements. Dan must define the content and duties of the unit leader’s position and the relationship of the position to each member of his team.

Organizational Design Organizational design refers to the overall organizational structure. Dan plans to change the philosophy and orientation of the teams. This effort will create a new structure of tasks, authority, and interpersonal relationships that he believes will channel the behavior of individuals and groups toward improved quality performance.

The Process of Organizations Certain behavioral processes give life to an organizational structure. When these processes don’t function well, unfortunate problems arise, as this account shows: Once Sandra completed her MBA, she was more positive than ever that marketing would be her life’s work. Because of her excellent academic record, she received several outstanding job offers. She accepted an offer from one of the nation’s largest consulting firms, believing that this job would allow her to gain experience in several areas of marketing and to engage in a variety of exciting work. Her last day on campus, she told her favorite professor, “This has got to be one of the happiest days of my life, getting such a great career opportunity.” Recently, while visiting the college placement office, the professor was surprised to hear that Sandra had told the placement director that she was looking for another job. Since she’d been with the consulting company less than a year, the professor was somewhat surprised. He called Sandra to find out why she wanted to change jobs. She told him, “I guess you can say my first experience with the real world was a ‘reality shock.’ All day long, I sit and talk on the phone, asking questions and checking off the answers. In graduate school, I was trained to be a manager, but here I’m doing what any high school graduate can do. I talked to my boss, and he said that all employees have to pay their dues. Well, why didn’t they tell me this while they were recruiting me? A little bit of accurate communication would have gone along way.”

This book discusses two behavioral processes that contribute to effective organizational performance: communication and decision making.

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Communication Organizational survival is related to management’s ability to receive, transmit, and act on information. The communication process links the organization to its environment as well as to its parts. Information flows to and from the organization and within the organization. Information integrates the activities within the organization. Sandra’s problem arose because the information that flowed from the organization was different from the information that flowed within the organization.

Decision Making The quality of decision making in an organization depends on selecting proper goals and identifying means for achieving them. With good integration of behavior and structural factors, management can increase the probability that high-quality decisions are made. Sandra’s experience illustrates inconsistent decision making by different organizational units (human resources and marketing) in hiring new employees. Organizations rely on individual decisions as well as group decisions. Effective management requires knowledge about both types of decisions. Because managerial decisions affect people’s lives and well-being, ethics play a major role.11 Was Sandra provided with realistic and truthful information about the job? If not, was there a breach of ethics on the part of the recruiter? Managers have power by virtue of their positions, so the potential for unethical decision making is present. With all the newspaper and TV accounts of scandals around the world in business, government, medicine, politics, and the law, there’s evidence that ethics in terms of decision making need serious attention. Ethics suggest that when faced with a problem, situation, or opportunity requiring a choice among several alternatives, managers must evaluate their decision on what course to follow as good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical.12 Conflicts between an individual manager’s personal moral philosophy and values and the culture and value of an organization regularly arise and make decision making a difficult endeavor. Managerial decision making is permeated by ethical issues. Managers have power and authority; when these factors exist, there is potential for wrong and right, good and evil. Among the indications that managerial decisions are linked to ethics are that managers:13 • • • •

Make decisions that affect the lives, careers, and well-being of people. Make decisions involving the allocation of limited resources. Design, implement, and evaluate rules, policies, programs, and procedures. Display to others their moral and personal values when they make decisions.

Examples of managerial decision making and their link to ethics and values will become obvious throughout this book. Skilled managers consider ethics to be an important factor to consider when making choices that affect individuals, groups, and organizations.14 A challenge that managers face is creating a work environment that is ethical, value centered, and performance driven. Some managers unfortunately have concluded that they must make trade-offs. We suggest that being concerned with ethics, telling the truth, and adopting a style that displays integrity in every decision can become the rule, the style—an integral part of managing people. Managers and others who have interests in whether organizations perform effectively can focus on one or all of three perspectives. The most basic level, individual effectiveness, emphasizes the task performance of specific employees or members of the organization.

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Perspectives on Effectiveness Managers routinely assess individual effectiveness through performance evaluation processes to determine who should receive salary increases, promotions, and other rewards available in the organization. Individuals seldom work alone, in isolation from others in the organization. Usually employees work in groups, necessitating yet another perspective on effectiveness: group effectiveness. In some instances, group effectiveness is simply the sum of the contributions of all its members. For example, a group of chemists working alone on unrelated projects would be effective to the extent that each individual scientist is effective. In other instances, group effectiveness is more than the sum of individual contributions (e.g., an assembly line that produces a product or service that combines the contributions of each individual working on the line). The term synergy refers to instances when the sum of individual contributions exceeds the simple summation of them. The third perspective is organizational effectiveness. Organizations consist of individuals and groups; therefore, organizational effectiveness consists of individual and group effectiveness. But organizational effectiveness is more than the sum of individual and group effectiveness. Through synergistic effects, organizations obtain higher levels of effectiveness than the sum of their parts. In fact, the rationale for organizations as a means for doing society’s work is that they can do more work than is possible through individual effort.15 Figure 1.2 reveals the relationships among three perspectives on effectiveness. The connecting arrows imply that group effectiveness depends on individual effectiveness, while organizational effectiveness depends on individual and group effectiveness. The exact relationships among the three perspectives vary depending on such factors as the type of organization, the work it does, and the technology used in doing that work. Figure 1.3 recognizes the three perspectives’ synergistic effects. Thus, group effectiveness is larger than the sum of individuals’ effectiveness because of the synergies realized through joint efforts. Management’s job is to identify the causes of organizational, group, and individual effectiveness. The distinction between causes of effectiveness and indicators of effectiveness can be difficult for both managers and researchers.16 The term effectiveness derives from the term effect, and we use the term in the context of cause-and-effect relationships. As Figure 1.3 shows, each level of effectiveness can be considered a variable caused by other variables. For example, a person’s motivation, ability, skill, knowledge, attitude, and stress level cause him or her to be effective. There are, of course, many other factors that cause an individual to be effective. The variables in Figure 1.3 are only a sample for illustrative purposes. Management and organizational behavior literature has reported various theories and research on causes of effectiveness at each of the three levels of analysis. For example, causes of individual effectiveness include ability, skill, knowledge, attitude, motivation, and stress. These individual differences account for differences in effectiveness in individual FIGURE 1.2 Three Perspectives on Effectiveness

Individual effectiveness

Group effectiveness

Organizational effectiveness

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FIGURE 1.3 Causes of Effectiveness

Individual effectiveness

Group effectiveness

Organizational effectiveness

Ability Skill Knowledge Attitude Motivation Stress

Cohesiveness Leadership Structure Status Roles Norms

Environment Technology Strategic choices Structure Processes Culture

performance. Some of the more usual causes of differences in group and organizational effectiveness are also noted in Figure 1.3.17 These and other potential causes of effectiveness are discussed at length in subsequent chapters. But the reality of organizational life is that there are few unambiguous cause-and-effect relationships. In most instances, evaluation judgments must take into account multiple causes and circumstances.18 How then can managers increase and maintain individual, group, and organizational effectiveness? The following section addresses this question by describing the nature of managerial work.

The Nature of Managerial Work Many individual writers (far too many to survey completely) have contributed theories describing what managers do or prescribing what they should do.19 Here we’ll rely on the idea of a group of writers who constitute the Classical School of Management.20 We refer to these writers as classical because they were the first to describe managerial work. Writers of the Classical School proposed that managerial work consists of distinct yet interrelated functions, which taken together constitute the managerial process. The view that management should be defined, described, and analyzed in terms of what managers (functions and processes) do has prevailed to this day, but with considerable modification as management functions and processes change in response to changing times and circumstances. Henry Mintzberg’s influential study identified three primary and overlapping managerial roles: interpersonal role, decisional role, and informational role.21 Each role has several related activities that distinguish it from the others. Interpersonal role activities clearly involve the manager with other people both inside and outside the organization. Decisional role activities involve the manager in making decisions about operational matters, resource allocation, and negotiations with the organization’s constituencies. The informational role involves the manager as a receiver and sender of information to a variety of individuals and institutions. The concept of management developed here is based on the assumption that the necessity for managing arises whenever work is specialized and undertaken by two or more persons. Under such circumstances, the specialized work must be coordinated, creating the necessity for managerial work. The nature of managerial work is, then, to coordinate the work of individuals, groups, and organizations by performing four management functions: planning,

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FIGURE 1.4 How Managers Achieve Effectiveness Managers perform the following functions:

To coordinate the behavior of:

To encourage and achieve:

Planning Organizing Leading Controlling

Individuals Groups Organizations

Individual effectiveness Group effectiveness Organizational effectiveness

organizing, leading, and controlling. Figure 1.4 depicts management’s contribution to effectiveness. The list of management functions can be increased to include other functions, but these four can be defined with sufficient precision to differentiate them and, at the same time, to include others that management writers have proposed. For example, some managers and organizations include functions such as decision making, staffing, coordinating, implementing, and executing. Remember, management and organizational behavior aren’t exact sciences with uniform language and definitions. The various definitions of management reflect the specific expectations of the people who practice management in specific organizations.22 Although the list we propose might be arbitrary, managers at all levels of the organization generally perform these functions. The relative importance of one function vis-à-vis another function differs depending on where the manager is in the organization and what problems and issues the manager faces. But the ability to discern the relative importance of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling may distinguish effective managers from ineffective managers.23 The work of a manager is captured in some degree in the next OB at Work feature. It suggests that hectic, frantic, and somewhat chaotic times are what managers know quite a bit about. The manager’s day is filled with challenges and with searching for ways to improve the effectiveness of employees.

Planning Effective Performance The planning function includes defining the ends to be achieved and determining appropriate means to achieve the defined ends. The necessity of this function follows from the nature of organizations as purposive (end-seeking) entities. Planning activities can be complex or simple, implicit or explicit, impersonal or personal. For example, a sales manager forecasting demand for the firm’s major product may rely on complex econometric models or casual conversations with salespeople in the field. Planning involves specifying not only where the organization is going but also how it’s to get there. In specific terms, alternatives must be analyzed and evaluated in terms of criteria that follow from the mission goals. Thus, managers by their own decisions can affect how they and their organizations will be evaluated. They determine what ends are legitimate and, therefore, what criteria are relevant.24 And once appropriate means are determined, the next managerial function—organizing—must be undertaken.

Organizing Effective Performance The organizing function includes all managerial activities that translate required planned activities into a structure of tasks and authority. In a practical sense, the organizing function

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O B AT W O R K

Another Day as a Manager

Hunter (a substituted name) manages a small office that includes an office manager, a business development officer, a researcher analyst, an information technology specialist, and a student intern. The business produces content for books, training programs (traditional and e-learning), and consulting services. The consulting services are provided by individual experts, who serve on the consulting board of the company. Hunter’s typical day is long, 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. More than 70 percent of his time is spent on the phone, on the computer, or in meetings. He is involved in at least 300 activities a day (e.g., reading and responding to 75 e-mails, talking to 15 different people on the phone, listening to issues or problems brought up by his office colleagues). Variety and interruptions are the norm. There is little time for Hunter to read reports, white papers, books, or advertising materials placed in his inbox or sent to his e-mail. Reading up on and studying the competition or thinking about the market is a critical activity. Hunter can squeeze in quiet time for such analysis only by coming into the office an hour early. By evening, he is tired after a hectic, frenetic day. Sitting down to read and think when he is tired hasn’t been productive. Hunter relies on social interaction and prefers talking when carrying out his management roles. He is accountable to

the owners and the board members of the firm. They want a steady stream of written reports that are not Hunter’s favorite work chore. He appreciates the need for written reports, but the 300 daily activities don’t leave much time to write, read, and revise reports. Hunter is so immersed in his daily activities that he loses track of time and commitments. He relies on the office manager to keep him pointed in the right direction and to attend scheduled meetings. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling are functions that Hunter knows must be performed. He feels guilty about not systematically fulfilling these functions. He also complains to his office colleagues about not interacting enough with customers, the owners, and other managers. His family and friends indicate that Hunter is just not as available as he once was when he didn’t have the responsibility to make his firm a success. This brief description of a typical manager of a small organization suggests that Mintzberg’s classic study years ago still is an accurate portrayal of managers. The interpersonal, decisional, and informational roles performed by managers are hectic, frantic, and challenging. Finding ways to more systematically manage and cope with these role responsibilities is the path of improved effectiveness.

involves (1) designing the responsibility and authority of each individual job and (2) determining which of these jobs will be grouped in specific departments. For example, managers of an engineering firm must determine what each engineer should do and what group each engineer will be assigned to. The organizing function’s outcome is the organization structure. The organization structure consists of many different individuals and groups performing different activities. These different activities must be integrated into a coordinated whole.25 It’s management’s responsibility to devise integrating methods and processes. If the differences among jobs and departments aren’t too great, then the simple exercise of authority is sufficient to integrate the differences. For example, a small yogurt shop’s manager can easily integrate order takers’ work by issuing directives. But the manager of a multiproduct, multidivisional organization must rely on more complex cross-functional teams, product and customer services managers, and electronic communication.26

Leading Effective Performance The leading function involves the manager in close day-to-day contact with individuals and groups. Thus, the leading function is uniquely personal and interpersonal. Although planning and organizing provide guidelines and directives in the form of plans, job descriptions, organization charts, and policies, it’s people who do the work. And people are variable entities. They have unique needs, ambitions, personalities, and attitudes. Each person perceives the workplace and his or her job uniquely. Managers must take into account

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these unique perceptions and behaviors and somehow direct them toward common purposes. One thoughtful and sensitive observer of leadership behavior has encouraged managers to become more knowledgeable about human psychology as a means to more effective performance.27 Leading involves day-to-day interactions between managers and their subordinates. In these interactions, the full panorama of human behavior is evident. Individuals work, play, communicate, compete, accept and reject others, join groups, leave groups, receive rewards, and cope with stress. Of all the management functions, leading is the most human oriented. It’s not surprising that the overwhelming bulk of organizational behavior theory and research relates to this function. And while much of the literature and conventional wisdom affirms the importance of leadership, we must recognize that there’s evidence suggesting that leadership’s importance is overrated.28 Leaders in executive positions represent the organization to its external constituencies. In this role, effective executive leaders use words and symbols to express the organization’s abstract ideals and what it stands for. The organization’s mission statement provides a starting point for performing this leadership role. But without the ability to use powerful language and metaphors, the executive leader will fail even if she has effective interpersonal skills.29

Controlling Effective Performance The controlling function includes activities that managers undertake to ensure that actual outcomes are consistent with planned outcomes. Managers undertake control to determine whether intended results are achieved and if they aren’t, why not. The conclusions managers reach because of their controlling activities are that the planning function was (and is) faulty or that the organizing function was (and is) faulty, or both. Controlling is, then, the completion of a logical sequence. The activities that constitute controlling include employee selection and placement, materials inspection, performance evaluation, financial statement analysis, and other well-recognized managerial techniques. The controlling function involves explicit consideration of effectiveness at all three levels: individual, group, and organizational. Performance evaluation involves comparisons of actual personnel performance against standards of performance. Managers judge as effective those employees who meet performance standards. Likewise, when supervisors focus on organizational groups such as production, sales, and engineering departments, they make judgments about whether these units have performed as expected (whether they’ve been effective). And at the highest level of performance, top managers judge the effectiveness of organizations. At every level, managers of organizations have the primary responsibility for attaining effective performance. We’ve seen that they can meet this responsibility by practicing with skill the four functions of management to identify the cause of effectiveness—accentuate the positive ones and eliminate the negative ones. But we must now think about the concept of effectiveness per se. What is it? How can we know it when we see it?

Three Ways to Think about Effectiveness Thus far, we’ve assumed a definition of effectiveness. But effectiveness means different things to different people, whether in a theoretical or practical sense. Differences in its meaning reflect one’s adherence to the goal approach, the systems theory approach, or the stakeholder approach.30 Managers must be able to use each of these approaches to effectiveness when appropriate.

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Goal Approach to Effectiveness goal approach to effectiveness Perspective on effectiveness that emphasizes the central role of goal achievement as a criterion for assessing effectiveness.

The goal approach to defining and evaluating effectiveness is the oldest and most widely used evaluation approach.31 According to this approach, an organization exists to accomplish goals. An early and influential practitioner and writer in management and organizational behavior stated, “What we mean by effectiveness . . . is the accomplishment of recognized objectives of cooperative effort. The degree of accomplishment indicates the degree of effectiveness.”32 The idea that organizations, as well as individuals and groups, should be evaluated in terms of goal accomplishment has widespread commonsense and practical appeal. The goal approach reflects purposefulness, rationality, and achievement— the fundamental tenets of contemporary Western societies. Many management practices are based on the goal approach. One widely used practice is management by objectives. According to this practice, managers specify in advance the goals that they expect their subordinates to accomplish and then evaluate periodically the degree to which they accomplish them. The actual specifics of management by objectives vary from case to case. In some cases, the manager and subordinate(s) discuss the objectives and attempt to reach mutual agreement. In other instances, the manager simply assigns the goals. Management by objectives can be useful whenever there’s a strong relationship between job behavior and a measurable outcome, the objective. The goal approach, for all its appeal and apparent simplicity, has problems.33 A few recognized difficulties include the following: 1. Some goals are hard to measure. Goal achievement isn’t readily measurable for organizations that don’t produce tangible outputs. For example, a public college’s goal is to provide a good education at a fair price. The question is: How would we know whether the college reaches that goal? What’s a good education? What’s a fair price? 2. Conflicting goals weaken their impact. Organizations attempt to achieve more than one goal, but achieving one goal often precludes or diminishes their ability to achieve other goals. A firm states that its goal is to maximize profit and to provide absolutely safe working conditions. These two goals are in conflict because one is achieved at the expense of the other. 3. Official goals are often not followed. The very existence of a common set of “official” goals to which all members are committed is questionable. Various researchers have noted the difficulty of obtaining consensus among managers as to their organization’s specific goals.34 A narrow view of effectiveness defines it as “the financial viability of an organization.”35 A financially viable organization can pay its bills as they’re due; the more effective organization will have funds in reserve. This view’s proponents state that even though it’s narrow, it is still useful because it overcomes the limitations of the wider idea of the goal approach. For example, measuring financial viability is relatively easy compared with measuring management’s “real” goals. Return on assets and return on equity are straightforward and readily available measures of firms’ financial viability. Nonbusiness organizations have similar measures. Educational institutions can measure financial viability as revenue per student; government agencies can measure it as revenue per employee.36 The idea that organizational effectiveness can be defined and measured simply has considerable appeal. The goal approach exerts a powerful influence on the development of management and organizational behavior theory and practice. It’s easy to say that managers should achieve the organization’s goals. It’s much more difficult to know how to do this. The alternative to the goal approach is the systems theory approach. Through systems theory, the concept of effectiveness can be defined in broader terms that enable managers to understand the causes of individual, group, and organizational effectiveness.

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Systems Theory Approach to Effectiveness

system A grouping of elements that individually establish relationships with each other and that interact with their environment both as individuals and as a collective.

FIGURE 1.5 The Basic Elements of a System

The term system is used in everyday conversations. A variety of meanings and interpretations are used to describe accounting systems, inventory control systems, a car’s ignition system, an ecological system, and the U.S. tax system. Each system consists of elements or characteristics that interact. Thus, a system is a grouping of elements that individually establish relationships with each other and that interact with their environment both as individuals and as a collective.37 Systems theorists propose that systems can be categorized three ways: (1) conceptual systems (a language), (2) concrete systems (machines), and (3) abstract systems (culture of an organization). Managers in organizations use the notion of a system to view their internal and external world and how the parts relate and interact with each other. By viewing the individuals, groups, structure, and processes of organizations in terms of a system, managers are able to identify common and uncommon themes that help explain the behavior and effectiveness of people. Identification of themes or patterns is important because it helps explain how effective an individual, group, or entire organization is in terms of goals.38 Systems theory enables us to describe organizations’ internal and external behavior. Internally we can see how and why people inside organizations perform their individual and group tasks. Externally we can assess organizations’ transactions with other organizations and institutions. All organizations acquire resources from the larger environments of which they’re part and, in turn, provide the goods and services demanded by the larger environment. Managers must deal simultaneously with the internal and external aspects of organizational behavior. This essentially complex process can be simplified, for analytical purposes, by employing the basic concepts of systems theory. In the context of systems theory, the organization is one element of a number of elements interacting interdependently. The flow of inputs and outputs is the basic starting point in describing the organization. In the simplest terms, the organization takes resources (inputs) from the larger system (environment), processes these resources, and returns them in changed form (output). Figure 1.5 displays the fundamental elements of the organization as a system. Systems theory also stresses the organization’s connection to the larger system of which it is a part. Every organization is part of an industry (a larger system), a society (a yet larger system), and, increasingly, a global economy (perhaps the largest system of all). All these systems make demands on their parts, and they include more than simple demands for products of acceptable quality and quantity. Organizations must also satisfy the demands that their actions contribute to viable environments by promoting clean air and water, internal national stability by rebuilding U.S. cities, and global political stability by investing in the economies of developing countries. Thus, the organization can’t simply produce a product or service to satisfy its customers; it must also produce actions and behaviors to satisfy other important components of the larger environment, the larger systems. Inputs

Processes

Output

Human Financial Equipment

Manufacturing Customer Communication

Services Products

Environment

Environment

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Systems Theory and Feedback The concept of the organization as a system that’s related to a larger system introduces the importance of feedback. As noted already, the organization depends on the environment not only for its inputs but also for the acceptance of its outputs. Thus, the organization must develop means for adjusting to environmental demands. The means for adjustment are information channels that enable the organization to recognize these demands. For example, in business organizations, market research is an important feedback mechanism. In simplest terms, feedback refers to information that reflects the outcomes of an act or a series of acts by an individual, group, or organization. Throughout this text, we’ll see how important feedback is for reinforcing learning and developing personality, group behavior, and leadership. Systems theory emphasizes the importance of responding to the content of the feedback information.

Examples of the Input–Output Cycle The firm has two major categories of inputs: human and natural resources. Human inputs consist of the people who work in the firm: operating, staff, and managerial personnel. They contribute their time and energy to the organization in exchange for wages and other rewards, tangible and intangible. Natural resources consist of the nonhuman inputs to be processed or to be used in combination with the human element to provide other resources. A steel mill uses people and blast furnaces (along with other tools and machinery) to process iron ore into steel and steel products. An auto manufacturer takes steel, rubber, plastics, and fabrics and (in combination with people, tools, and equipment) makes cars. A firm survives as long as its output is purchased in the market in quantities at prices that enable it to replenish its depleted stock of inputs. A university uses its resources to teach students, to perform research, and to provide technical information to society. A university’s survival depends on its ability to attract students’ tuition and taxpayers’ dollars in sufficient amounts to pay the salaries of its faculty and staff and the other costs of resources. If a university’s output is rejected by the larger environment so that students enroll elsewhere and the government uses tax dollars to support other public endeavors or if a university is guilty of expending too many resources in relation to its output, it will cease to exist. Like a business, a university must provide the right output at the right price if it’s to survive.39 As a final example we’ll describe a hospital in term of systems theory. A hospital’s inputs are its professional and administrative staff, equipment, supplies, and patients. Patients are processed by applying medical knowledge and treatment. To the extent that its patients are restored to the level of health consistent with the severity of their disease or injury, the hospital is effective. Systems theory emphasizes two important considerations: (1) the ultimate survival of organization depends on its ability to adapt to the demands of its environment; and (2) in meeting these demands, the total cycle of input–process–output must be the focus of managerial attention. Therefore, criteria of effectiveness must reflect both considerations and we must define effectiveness accordingly. The systems approach accounts for the fact that resources have to be devoted to activities that have little to do with achieving the organization’s goal.40 In other words, adapting to the environment and maintaining the input–process– output flow require that resources be allocated to activities that are only indirectly related to the organizations’ primary goal.

Stakeholder Approach to Effectiveness The application of systems theory concepts to the discussion of organizational effectiveness identifies the importance of the external environment. Systems theory also identifies

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stakeholder approach to effectiveness Perspective that emphasizes the relative importance of different groups’ and individuals’ interests in an organization.

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the importance of achieving a balance among the various parts of the system of which an organization is but one part. In practical and concrete terms, the stakeholder approach means achieving balance among the various parts of the system by satisfying the interests of the organization’s constituency (all those individuals and groups of individuals who have a stake in the organization).41 But the goal approach emphasizes that organizations are chartered to accomplish goals. Individuals and groups of individuals having stakes in an organization include its employees (nonmanagers and managers), customers, stockholders, directors, suppliers, creditors, officials at all levels of government, managers of competitive and cooperative organizations, and the general public. Each of these individuals and groups of individuals expects the organization to behave in ways that benefit them; these expectations may or may not be compatible with those of other individuals and groups. Given that an organization can be judged effective or ineffective depending on who’s making thejudgment, how can managers ever achieve effectiveness in the sense of satisfying all the claims of the organization’s constituencies? The chapter’s opening vignette pointed out the challenges that face managers in meeting the diverse needs of different stakeholders. One approach would be to state that there’s no way to determine the relative importance of the constituent claims and that there are as many evaluations of effectiveness as there are individuals making judgments. This relative view assumes that all claims on the organization are valid and that no basis exists for ordering their importance, so no basis exists for making an overall judgment of organizational effectiveness.42 How then is management to act? One answer is provided by the idea that each of the stakeholders controls resources that are valuable to the organization. At any point in time, the resources they control are more or less important and the organization is effective to the extent that it satisfies the interest of the group controlling the most important resource.43 Thus stockholders’ interests supersede employees’ interests when the organization must acquire equity funds to survive. Or a government regulatory agency’s interests supersede stockholders’ interests when safety regulations require investment in safe working conditions. This new view can be extended to a concept of the organization as an arena in which the different groups negotiate their claims by developing coalitions capable of combining the power of each member of the coalition. Managers of the organization achieve effectiveness by identifying the most powerful coalitions and satisfying the demands of the most influential members of these coalitions. Whether the organization is effective when satisfying the most powerful group involves value judgment. And we shouldn’t lose sight of the fact that all judgments of effectiveness involve value judgment. To state that we should satisfy the most powerful group at the expense of the least powerful group is to make a personal statement of what’s ultimately important. Because many different sources of value judgments exist, we shouldn’t expect any final answer to the question, Is the organization effective? Nor should we expect any final answer when the focus is individual and group effectiveness. Values reflect human judgments about what’s important, but those judgments shift with individuals, place, and time. One study of the applicability of multiple-constituency theory suggests that it may in fact integrate both the system and goal approaches to effectiveness.44 The study documents that some constituencies favor outcomes related to means (the process element in systems), while others favor outcomes related to ends (the outcome element in systems). Thus, it’s possible to use the multiple-constituency theory to combine the goal and systems approaches to obtain a more appropriate approach to organizational effectiveness. But even if we can resolve the differences between the goal and systems approaches with respect to what different constituencies desire from organizational performance, we still must recognize that these desires can change with and over time.

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Organizational Change and Learning An examination of the stories of how IBM changed or how Harley-Davidson changed from companies that were losing market share and profits to become beacons for success reveals two important patterns. First, successful change is associated with a multistep process that creates power and motivation to continue. Second, the change process is driven by topquality leaders who exert a lasting influence on the changes being made. These leaders establish direction; align people with their visions; and inspire people to overcome political, personal, and bureaucratic barriers to change. As changes occur in workforce technology, the economy, competition, social trends, and world politics, it is inevitable that leaders will have to initiate organizational development interventions. Chapter 17 will examine alternative approaches and interventions for change. Because competition is becoming stronger each day, organizations have no choice—they must change. In all industries, a standard of continuous improvement and learning is becoming the norm around the world. Each of you reading this book has a viewpoint, a set of assumptions, or some specific ideas about why people behave as they do. Each person attempts to explain, predict, or analyze the behavior of others. How valid and how good are these viewpoints? To help you learn how to develop valid viewpoints, this book will provide suggested frameworks and explanations about behavior of people working in organizations. Think about the following statements and your personal beliefs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Satisfied workers produce the highest quality output. Women employees work harder for female managers than for male managers. Enriched jobs are preferred by the vast majority of employees. American managers are more stressed about their jobs than their Japanese counterparts. Positively cohesive work groups are usually more productive than noncohesive work groups. Women are more motivated by the amount of pay they receive than men. Personality conflicts are outdated and aren’t problems in most work settings. Organizations with no structure are more autonomous, more productive, and more cost conscious. 9. Leaders are born. 10. Most training programs are carefully evaluated for their effectiveness. These broad comments are subjects for debate. None of them are perfectly true or false. This reflects how difficult behavior is to understand and analyze. As you progress through the course, test your own views against what you read and discuss. Improving your ability to understand, explain, and predict behavior is the road we’ll follow in the rest of the book. Even those students with no interest or motivation to serve as managers will benefit from learning more about behavior in general and organizational behavior specifically. Working for others, starting your own organization, or doing business with organizations (e.g., the Internal Revenue Service, the public utility company, the school in your community) will require an awareness and understanding of the behavior of people. Through a better awareness and understanding, the transactions each of us has in society can be more positive and beneficial than if we remained uneducated about behavior.

Managerial Work and the Behavior, Structure, and Processes of Organizations The concept of managerial work that we’ve developed so far is brought into perspective and summarized in Figure 1.6. This text’s focus is the behavior of individuals and groups in organizations. The purpose of managers in organizations is to coordinate behavior so

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FIGURE 1.6 Relationships among the Management Functions and Individual, Group, and Organizational Effectiveness

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Sources of Effectiveness Management Functions Planning Organizing Leading Controlling

Individuals

Groups

Organizations

Objectives Job designs Delegated authority Person-centered influence Individual standards of performance

Goals Department or unit

Missions Integrative methods and processes Entity-centered influence Organization standards of performance

Group-centered influence Group standards of performance

that an organization is judged effective by those who evaluate its record. Those who evaluate organizations can be concerned with any number of specific or general criteria and with output, process, or input measures.45 To coordinate behavior and to satisfy evaluators, managers engage in activities intended to plan, organize, lead, and control behavior. Major factors in determining individual and group behavior are task and authority relationships.46 Therefore, managers must design organizational structures and processes to facilitate communication among employees. Thus, it would seem that the relationships among management, organizations, and effectiveness are straightforward. Effective individual, group, and organizational performance should be the result of effective planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. However, as will become obvious, organizations and people are not that simple. Managing culturally diverse people in organizations to achieve meaningful goals of individual, group, and organizational effectiveness in a rapidly changing and complex environment is challenging, rewarding, and frustrating. This book will portray the challenge, reward, and frustration in a realistic and contemporary way.

Summary of Key Points

• This book focuses on the developing field of management known as organizational behavior. Organizational behavior studies the behavior of individuals and groups in organizational settings. The framework within which this book’s contents are presented is based on three characteristics common to all organizations: the behavior of individuals and groups, the structure of organizations (i.e., the design of the fixed relationships among the jobs in an organization), and the processes (e.g., communication and decision making) that make organizations “tick” and give them life. The model in Figure 1.1 has evolved from our concept of what all organizations are. • A major interest is learning about the behavioral sciences that have produced theory and research concerning human behavior in organizations. However, no attempt has been made here to write a book that teaches behavioral science. The continuous theme throughout the book is the effective management of organizational behavior. Given this theme, the task is to interpret behavior science materials so that management students can comprehend the behavior, structure, and process phenomena as these are affected by managers’ actions. We intend to provide readers with a basis for applying the relevant contributions of behavioral science to the management of organizations. • An overriding consideration documented in many studies of managerial work is that the managerial process in inherently a human process—people relating to people. Recognizing this fact establishes the importance of understanding human behavior in the workplace. The behavior of individuals and groups is important for achieving effective organizational performance, but behavior of managers themselves must also be understood.

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• The nature of managerial work derives from the necessity to coordinate work in organizations. By their nature, organizations exploit the benefits of specializations, but by its nature, specialization requires coordination. Managers coordinate specialized work by applying planning, organizing, leading, and controlling functions. These functions require that managers determine and influence the causes of individual, group, and organizational effectiveness. • Two competing concepts of effectiveness derive from two competing theories of organizations. Goal theory is based on the idea that organizations are rational, purposive entities pursuing specific missions, goals, and objectives. Accordingly, how well they function (i.e., how effective they are) is reckoned in terms of how successful they are in achieving their purposes. Systems theory assumes that organizations are social entities existing as parts of larger environments and that, to survive, they function to satisfy the demands of those environments. • The stakeholder perspective on organizational effectiveness recognizes that organizations exist to satisfy the demands of many different individuals and institutions (constituencies). Each constituency has expectations that the organization must satisfy through its performance.

Discussion and Review Questions

1. What expectations do you have about serving as a manager? What parts of the management job appeal to you, and what parts are unattractive? 2. We sometimes encounter red tape and inefficiency in a generally unresponsive and ineffective organization. One of management’s goals is to achieve the opposite: an efficient and effective organization. What management skills are needed to help an organization become effective? 3. This chapter suggested that effectiveness can be viewed from the individual, group, and organizational perspectives. Is it possible for an individual manager to be effective even if her group isn’t effective? Similarly, can an organization be effective even if several of its employees are not effective? Explain and give examples to support your argument. 4. What contribution does the concept multiple constituency make to our understanding of organizational effectiveness? In particular, does the concept make it easier or harder for a manager to know when she has accomplished effective performance for her group or organization? Explain. 5. What has occurred historically to warrant referring to the management of organizational behavior as a blending of art and science? 6. Should a manager of a small firm (say, 25 employees) be concerned about establishing an organization structure? Explain. 7. Describe how a manager who worked for 15 years in Los Angeles would apply a contingency management approach when he’s transferred to a similar managerial position in the firm’s Barcelona, Spain, office. 8. The study and application of OB has been described as multidisciplinary in nature. Why is it multidisciplinary? Explain. 9. If you were a training director responsible for instructing managers in the techniques of management, how would you evaluate your training program’s effectiveness? Is the goal model of effectiveness useful? Is the systems model useful? 10. One writer on management theory states that management is aptly defined as “getting work done through other people.” Compare this concept of management with the one proposed in this chapter.

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Taking It to the Net

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Traditional versus New Economy Comparison The Internet provides a rich and endless array of data, information, and Web sites that must be carefully used. Note the emphasis on the word carefully. There is no universal screening or validating group, agency, or association that approves the information on the Internet. It is your responsibility to make sure that the information you review, consider for use, and incorporate in your studies, reports, or findings is accurate, reliable, honest, and cited properly. Using the Internet and your favorite search engine (try www.google.com or www.yahoo.com), examine two different firms. Pick a traditional economy company (automobiles, oil and energy, transportation) and what some refer to as a new economy company (social networking and smart phones), and answer the following: 1. How much of each company’s revenue and profit is generated outside of the United States? 2. What does the code of ethics statement for each company say? 3. What changes have the managers made to the organization’s product/service mix in the past five years? 4. How effective are the firms? (Describe what basis you use to determine effectiveness.) 5. Would you want to work for either of these firms? Why? Why not?

Case for Analysis: McDonald’s Attempting to Regain Its Effectiveness? The McDonald brothers’ first restaurant was founded in 1937 just east of Pasadena, California. It didn’t serve hamburgers, had no playground, and offered no Happy Meals. The most popular menu item was the hot dog. From that humble beginning, Ray Kroc built McDonald’s into a mammoth business that earns over $23.5 billion in annual revenue and employs more than 450,000 people in approximately 32,000 restaurants in 118 countries. For decades, McDonald’s growth and profit margins were the envy of the world. McDonald’s was considered an effective business with tremendous potential for growth domestically and internationally. Consumer tastes constantly change, and adults began to get bored with the McDonald’s menu in the 1960s. Responding to environmental pressure such as changes in consumer tastes, McDonald’s introduced a new sandwich called the Big Mac. As consumers grew weary of beef, McDonald’s introduced chicken McNuggets and chicken sandwiches in the early 1980s and within four years was the nation’s second-largest poultry seller. In 2000, McDonald’s started to accept credit cards to pay for meals. In 2009, the company added new premium items such as the Angus burger and McCafé coffees (lattes, cappuccinos, etc.) to help boost sales during the recession. This last move seems to be helping stabilize sales in the United States and

increasing profits overseas. Within-stores sales of U.S. restaurants remained flat (not negative) in 2009, whereas overseas sales grew as much as 4.3 percent in Europe, Asia/Pacific, the Middle East, and Africa. McDonald’s changed as the environment demanded. It became the most recognized brand name and built thousands of Golden Arches restaurants. McDonald’s wanted to provide consumers with a quality meal, served quickly, at a fair price. In the past, however, McDonald’s attempts at pizza, fajitas, pasta, fried chicken, and low-fat sandwiches have all been failures. For a company that enjoyed significant growth for five decades based on its ability to read environmental trends, the failures have been shocking. McDonald’s has been unable to capitalize on its brand name or move beyond hamburgers and French fries. During a period when Americans are eating out more, McDonald’s has failed to capture a growing portion of the market. Still, every single day McDonald’s serves a meal to 1 of every 14 Americans. McDonald’s has expanded into markets in more than 120 countries serving about 5 million customers each day. McDonald’s continues to enter new markets each year. The worldwide expansion has created a problem with quality control: McDonald’s is faced with the quality control problem of building an increasing number of stores without carefully checking the quality of the product they serve. In a survey for

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Restaurants & Institutions magazine in which 2,800 consumers graded chains based on the taste of their food, McDonald’s ranked 87 out of 91. Consumers around the world want taste and quality when selecting a restaurant. McDonald’s, like other fast-food chains, is attempting to address claims that their menu is filled with foods that contribute to obesity. Providing more nutritious menu items is still a challenge for a business that primarily is associated with hamburgers and French fries. The organizational effectiveness of McDonald’s remains a serious concern among franchisers, executives, and stockholders. How or whether McDonald’s can make the necessary changes to again be the growthoriented organization it once was is questionable.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How can McDonald’s use its powerful brand name to help improve its effectiveness? 2. Are quality and taste important to you when selecting a restaurant? Explain. 3. What environmental forces are the most different as we move through the decade of 2010 to 2020 when compared with the 1950s and 1960s? Sources: Tess Stynes, “McDonald’s Sales Rise Overseas,” Wall Street Journal, February 10, 2010, p. B.6; Paul Ziobro, “McDonald’s Gains Share In Fast Food,” Wall Street Journal, October 28, 2009, p. B.5; McDonald’s Annual Report, 2008; “McDonald’s to Start Taking Credit Cards,” Business Custom Wire, March 26, 2004, p. 1; Seth Godin, “When It Comes to Food, Music, and More, Which Do You Prefer: Ubiquity or Authenticity?” Fast Company, July 2001, pp. 84–85; and David Leonhardt, “McDonald’s: Can It Regain Its Golden Touch?” Businessweek, March 9, 1998, pp. 70–77.

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Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 2, you should be able to Define The terms organizational culture and socialization. Explain The difference in how some employees talk about a positive culture and others describe a negative culture. Describe The impact of an organization’s culture on individual and team behavior. Explain Why spirituality is considered to have some positive benefits in the workplace. Identify Several types of effective socialization practices in organizations.

Nike’s Culture Activists Attempt to Dampen Growth While earning his MBA at Stanford University, Phil Knight created a business plan that eventually spawned the successful multinational sports and fitness company known as Nike. Looking for ways to expand into the related outdoor gear and clothing sales, Nike performed careful due diligence on The North Face, Inc. Buying The North Face, with its annual $240 million in sales, would have allowed Nike to enter at the top of the outdoor gear sales curve. Nike CEO Phil Knight said no to the purchase and merger, however, because of expected problems in merging The North Face’s operation and culture with Nike’s. Knight may have been correct to hold off the acquisition because of potential cultural conflict, but not taking chances to expand Nike’s growth has dimmed its appeal in financial markets. Nike’s culture is considered to be somewhat insular and protective. Knight was a cofounder and a powerful leader whose style had a major effect on the company’s culture. Knight’s style, the Nike insular culture, and its hard-charging growth goals set the standard in the sneaker industry for years. However, these same characteristics have contributed to the feeling among current top-level executives that enough is enough—they have left Nike for other jobs. Nike’s culture seems to be controlled and modified by Knight’s imprint and legacy on how to transact business. When Knight wanted to shift the direction of Nike’s product line or make other changes, he reached a final decision and implemented the choice. Analysts are examining the cultural characteristics of Nike and attempting to decide whether the usual traditional, cautious pace of change and dominating legacy left by Knight will allow the firm to improve its worldwide reach. There are groups such as Adbusters Media Foundation that want to change Nike’s culture by slowing its growth and forcing Nike to take the swoosh logo off its products. Adbusters refers to its strategy to slow Nike as culture jamming. Adbusters is concerned that there is too much promotion of consumerism in society and popular national culture. The Nike machine is assumed to be too influential and powerful. Sources: Adapted from http://www.nikebiz.com/company_overview/executives/phil_knight.html (accessed on April 7, 2010); https://www.adbusters.org/about/adbusters (accessed April 7, 2010); Naomi Rockler-Gladen, “Me Against the Media: From the Trenches of a Media Lit Class,” Adbusters, March 2007, pp. 1–4; Christoph Senn and Axel Thoma, “Global Business: Worldly Wise,” Wall Street Journal Online, March 3, 2007; and Karen R. Polenske, The Economic Geography of Innovation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

In most cases a person will move from one firm to another or even from one department to another within the same firm and consequently experience differences between the environments. Attempting to adjust to these different environments involves learning new values, processing information in new ways, and working within an established set of norms, customs,

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and rituals. The adaptation to new environments is a common occurrence. Although adaptation can be challenging, it can be better understood by learning about organizational culture.1 As the Nike vignette illustrates, culture provides lessons that continue to affect decision making long after a dominant cofounder has left the day-to-day scene. In addition, organizational cultures can enhance the overall effectiveness and performance of organizations.2 Companies such as Zappos, Starbucks, Pike Place Fish Market, and Cirque du Soleil have created unique cultures that have contributed to their organizational success.

Organizational Culture Someone walking into the Broadmoor Hotel in Colorado Springs, the Breakers Hotel in West Palm Beach, or the Westin in San Francisco experiences a certain atmosphere, feeling, and style that is unique. These hotels have a personality, a charm, a feel. They have a cultural anchor that influences the way customers respond and the way employees interact with customers. Walmart also sends off a powerful cultural message.3 With over $401 billion in sales in 2009, 2.1 million associates, and 3,600 stores in 50 states, Walmart’s singular strategy is to deliver cost savings to customers.4 Sam Walton, the founder, instilled these cultural values into the Walmart organization. He had a significant influence on what Walmart is throughout the world—from Tokyo to Chicago to Moscow. Walton projected his vision and his openness about what Walmart would be to customers. He gave the company a purpose, goals, and a cultural base. Whether the discussion focuses on a grand hotel that exudes culture or a McDonald’s restaurant that projects its founder’s vision of the business, culture is a part of organizational life that influences the behavior, attitudes, and overall effectiveness of employees. As the opening vignette illustrates, a culture such as Nike’s can influence how or whether an organization can grow.

Organizational Culture Defined Despite being an important concept, organizational culture as a perspective from which to understand the behavior of individuals and groups within organizations has its limitations. First, it is not the only way to view organizations. We have already discussed the goal and systems views without even mentioning culture. Second, like so many concepts, organizational culture is not defined the same way by any two popular theorists or researchers. Some of the definitions of culture describe it as: • Symbols, language, ideologies, rituals, and myths.5 • Organizational scripts derived from the personal scripts of the organization’s founder(s) or dominant leader(s). • A product; historical; based on symbols; and an abstraction from behavior and the products of behavior.6 organizational culture What the employees perceive and how this perception creates a pattern of beliefs, values, and expectations.

Organizational culture is what the employees perceive and how this perception creates a pattern of beliefs, values, and expectations. Edgar Schein defined culture as A pattern of basic assumptions—invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with the problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.7

The Schein definition points out that culture involves assumptions, adaptations, perceptions, and learning. He further contends that an organization’s culture, such as those of Walt Disney, Twitter, or Apple, has three layers. Layer I includes artifacts and creations

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

New Job? Learn the Culture

Starting a new job can be both exciting and intimidating. It’s exciting because it feels good to land a job, earn an income, and meet new people. It’s a little intimidating because new employees often feel like they’re under a microscope and don’t want to make any mistakes right after bring hired. Our advice is to “hit the ground—listening!” Part of the settling-in process happens when new employees get to know their new bosses and co-workers and what their jobs really entail. An equally important step is for new employees to begin learning about the organizational culture. This is important because it will allow new employees to become aware of the invisible glue that holds employees and the organization together. Such knowledge can help new employees fit into the culture and succeed. Here are some specific tips that will help new employees begin the process of learning about the organization’s culture:

1. Read about the organization. Current and past business news articles, company press releases, and blogs are good sources of information. 2. Study key organizational documents. Ask for copies or download from the organization’s website the vision and mission statements, annual report, and code of conduct. 3. Ask questions of people at the organization. As new employees, individuals can simply ask their supervisor and co-workers about the company culture. 4. Observe and listen. New employees can learn a great deal about the organization by observing how managers and fellow employees behave on a daily basis and respond to difficult situations like losing a major customer or discovering a major product defect.

that are visible but often not interpretable. An annual report, a newsletter, wall dividers between workers, and furnishings are examples of artifacts and creations. At layer II are values, or the things that are important to people. Values are conscious, affective desires or wants. In layer III are the basic assumptions people make that guide their behavior. Included in this layer are assumptions that tell individuals how to perceive, think about, and feel about work, performance goals, human relationships, and the performance of colleagues. Figure 2.1 presents the Schein three-layer model of organizational culture. FIGURE 2.1 Schein’s Three-Layer Organizational Model Source: Adapted from E. H. Schein, “Does Japanese Management Style Have a Message for American Managers?” Sloan Management Review, Fall 1981, p. 64.

Examples of cultural attributes • Documents • Physical layouts • Furnishings • Language • Jargon • Work ethic and practice • Fair day's work for a fair day's pay • Loyalty • Commitment • Helping others • Performance leads to rewards • Management equity • Competency counts

I Artifacts and creations • Technology • Art • Visible and audible behavior patterns

Visible but often not decipherable

II Values • Testable in the physical environment • Testable only by social consensus

Greater level of awareness

III Basic assumptions • Relationship to environment • Nature of reality, time, and space • Nature of human nature • Nature of human activity • Nature of human relations

Taken for granted, invisible, preconscious

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Pfizer

The company in 2009 employed approximately 116,000 individuals and used the skills of over 12,000 medical researchers. Annual revenues are in excess of $50 billion. Each day 38 million patients are helped by Pfizer products. The Pfizer mission and purpose are as follows:

Customer focus. We are deeply committed to meeting the needs of our customers, and we constantly focus on customer satisfaction.

We will become the world’s most valued company to patients, customers, colleagues, investors, business partners, and the communities where we work and live.

Community. We play an active role in making every country and community in which we operate a better place to live and work, knowing that the ongoing vitality of our host nations and local communities has a direct impact on the long-term health of our business.

OUR PURPOSE

Innovation. Innovation is the key to improving health and sustaining Pfizer’s growth and profitability.

Leadership. We believe that leaders empower those around them by sharing knowledge and rewarding outstanding individual effort. Leaders are those who step forward to achieve difficult goals, envisioning what needs to happen and motivating others.

Collaboration. We know that to be a successful company we must work together, frequently transcending organizational and geographic boundaries to meet the changing needs of our customers.

OUR MISSION

We dedicate ourselves to humanity’s quest for longer, healthier, happier lives through innovation in pharmaceutical, consumer, and animal health products. To achieve Pfizer’s mission and purpose, the following values are practiced9: •

Integrity. We demand of ourselves and others the highest ethical standards, and our products and processes will be of the highest quality.

Informally asking Walt Disney or Twitter employees about their firm’s culture is not likely to reveal much. A person’s feelings and perceptions are usually kept at the subconscious level. The feelings one has about a stay at Motel 6 or a stay at the Westin St. Francis Hotel in San Francisco are often difficult to express. The culture of a firm can be inferred by looking at those aspects that are perceptible. For example, four specific manifestations of culture at Walt Disney are shared things (wearing the Walt Disney uniform to fit the attraction), shared sayings (a “good Mickey” is a compliment for doing a good job), shared behavior (smiling at customers and being polite), and shared feelings (taking pride in working at Disney). The OB and Your Career feature provides suggestions that new employees can employ to learn about their organizational culture. Pfizer is a large international pharmaceutical company that was founded in 1849 by cousins Charles Pfizer and Charles Erhart. The New York–based firm is the maker of Lipitor, Viagra, and Zoloft. Pfizer is considered a great company in studies of most-admired firms. Bruce Pfau, a vice president of the Hay Group of Philadelphia, states that firms such as Pfizer have unique organizational cultures. He states, “The corporate cultures of high-performing companies are dramatically different from those of average companies.”8 He believes companies like Pfizer stress teamwork, customer focus, fair treatment of employees, initiative, and innovation. The OB at Work feature presents some of Pfizer’s values and philosophy.

Organizational Culture and Societal Value Systems values The conscious, affective desires or wants of people that guide their behavior.

Organizations are able to operate efficiently only when shared values exist among the employees. Values are the conscious, affective desires or wants of people that guide their behavior. An individual’s personal values guide behavior on and off the job. If a person’s set of values is important, it will guide the person and also promote consistent behavior across situations. Values are a society’s ideas about what is right and wrong—such as the belief that hurting someone physically is immoral. Values are passed from one generation

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to the next and are communicated through education systems, religions, families, communities, and organizations.10 A society’s values have an impact on organizational values because of the interactive nature of work, leisure, family, and community.11 American culture has historically given work a central place in the constellation of values. Work remains a source of self-respect and material reward in the United States. Work also serves as a place to achieve personal growth and fulfillment. As the demographics and makeup of the workforce become more culturally diverse, it will become extremely important for managers to learn about the value systems and orientations of the changing workforce.12 Does the value mix change or is it different for women, African Americans, Hispanics, immigrants, physically challenged workers, and others who are increasingly joining the workforce and contributing to organizational success? This is a question that empirical studies and extensive analysis and debate will need to cover more thoroughly in the next few decades.

Organizational Culture and Its Effects Because organizational culture involves shared expectations, values, and attitudes, it exerts influence on individuals, groups, and organizational processes. For example, if quality customer service is important in the culture, then individuals are expected to adopt this behavior. If, on the other hand, adhering to a specific set of procedures in dealing with customers is the norm, then this type of behavior would be expected, recognized, and rewarded. Researchers who have suggested and studied the impact of culture on employees indicate that it provides and encourages a form of stability.13 There is a feeling of stability, as well as a sense of organizational identity, provided by an organization’s culture. Walt Disney was able to attract, develop, and retain top-quality employees because of the firm’s stability and the pride of identity that goes with being a part of the Disney team. In addition to stability and identity, a culture can generate a sense of loyalty and commitment. Individuals by joining an organization and working hard to perform and compete create a sense of “we” and “me.” This involves loyalty and remaining committed to the goals of an organization. It has become useful to differentiate between strong and weak cultures.14 A strong culture is characterized by employees sharing core values. The more employees share and accept the core values, the stronger the culture is and the more influential it is on behavior. Religious organizations, cults, and some Japanese firms such as Toyota are examples of organizations that have strong, influential culture. An American firm with a notoriously strong and influential culture is Southwest Airlines. Herb Kelleher, one of the founders, is largely responsible for the strong culture, which generated stability, identity, loyalty, and commitment. Along with Roland King, Kelleher rather impulsively decided to start an airline.15 At Southwest, employees are expected to learn more than one job and help one another when needed. To show his own commitment, Kelleher pitched in to help employees as he traveled around doing business. Stories about Kelleher’s pitching in are legendary at Southwest. One tells of how Kelleher sat next to mailing operators through one night and later into the morning doing the same work they did. He often got off a plane, went down to baggage, and pitched in handling bags. One year, the day before Thanksgiving, which is the busiest day of the year, Kelleher worked in baggage all day despite the pouring rain.16 The closeness of the employees at Southwest is expressed by having fun and working hard. One researcher who studied the airline concluded: The atmosphere at Southwest Airlines shows that having fun is a value that pervades every part of the organization. Joking, cajoling, and prank pulling at Southwest Airlines are representative of the special relationships that exist among the employees in the company.17

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Five Best Places to Work

Annually, Fortune identifies and discusses the “100 Best Companies to Work For.” Employees evaluate their employers. The “Top Five Best Companies to Work For, 2010” were:

their neighborhood. The chain, which has never had a layoff, was founded in 1916 and now operates in 71 stores in five states.

1. SAS, Carey, NC (www.sas.com). A $2.3 billion privately owned software company, SAS offers its employees a slew of generous benefits, including low-cost child care, unlimited sick days, comprehensive health insurance, an on-site medical center with doctors and nurses, a free fitness center and pool, and a library.

4. Google, Mountain View, CA (www.google.com). Google continues to set the standard for Silicon Valley, increasing 401(k) matching and planning to hire thousands of new employees in 2010. Onsite engineers are encouraged to spend 20 percent of their time on creative, independent projects. No wonder Google gets 1,300 résumés from hopeful applicants each day.

2. Edward Jones, St. Louis, MO (www.edwardjones.com). For the 11th year, this $3.8 billion investment firm was named to Fortune’s “Best Companies to Work For” list. With over 7 million investor clients, Edward Jones creates a “family culture” which encourages employees to stay with the organization for the long term. 3. Wegmans Food Markets, Rochester, NY (www.wegmans. com). This private grocery chain gets thousand of letters every year from shoppers who want a Wegmans store in

5. Nugget Market, Woodland, CA (www.nuggetmarket.com). This $287 million supermarket chain helped its employees weather the recent recession by giving them discounts on groceries. Sources: Adapted from http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/ bestcompanies/2010/snapshots/1.htm (accessed April 10, 2010); www. sas.com; www.edwardjones.com; www.wegmans.com; www.google. com; and www.nuggetmarket.com.

The strong culture that has evolved at Southwest Airlines was created by the founder and the employees. They make it a distinct culture that influences everyone within the firm. Popular best-selling books provide anecdotal evidence about the powerful influence of culture on individuals, groups, and processes. Heroes and stories about firms are interestingly portrayed.18 However, theoretically based and empirically valid research on culture and its impact is still quite sketchy. Questions remain about the measures used to assess culture, and definitional problems have not been resolved. There has also been the inability of researchers to show that a specific culture contributes to positive effectiveness in comparison to less effective firms with another cultural profile.

Creating Organizational Culture Can a culture be created to influence behavior in the direction management desires? This is an intriguing question. An experiment to create a positive, productive culture was conducted in a California electronics firm.19 Top managers regularly met to establish the core values of the firm. A document was developed to express the core values as “paying attention to detail,” “doing it right the first time,” “delivering defect-free products,” and “using open communications.” The document of core values was circulated to middle-level managers, who refined the statements. Then the revised document was circulated to all employees as the set of guiding principles of the firm. An anthropologist was in the firm at the time working as a software trainer. He insightfully analyzed what actually occurred in the firm. There was a gap between the managementstated culture and the firm’s actual working conditions and practices. Quality problems existed throughout the firm. There was also a strictly enforced chain of command and a top-down-only communication system. The culture creation experiment was too artificial and was not taken seriously by employees.

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The consequences of creating a culture in the California firm included decreased morale, increased turnover, and a poorer financial performance. Ultimately, the firm filed for bankruptcy and closed its doors. The California electronics firm case points out that artificially imposing a culture is difficult. Imposing a culture is often met with resistance. It is difficult to simply create core values. Also, when a disparity exists between reality and a stated set of values, employees become confused, irritated, and skeptical. They also usually lack enthusiasm and respect when a false image is portrayed. Creating a culture apparently just doesn’t happen because a group of intelligent, well-intentioned managers meets and prepares a document. Cultures seem to evolve over time, as did Microsoft’s, Nestlé’s, Honda’s, and Walt Disney’s. Hauser describes this evolution as follows: The culture that eventually evolves in a particular organization is . . . a complex outcome of external pressures, internal potential responses, responses to critical events, and probably, to some unknown degree, chance factors that could not be predicted from a knowledge of either the environment or the members.20

A model that illustrates the evolution of culture and its outcome is presented in Figure 2.2. The model emphasizes an array of methods and procedures that managers can use to foster a cohesive culture. In examining this model, recall the California electronics firm and the limited method it used to generate a quick-fix culture. Figure 2.2 emphasizes the core factors in creating and sustaining a positive culture, which suggests the importance of history, expectations, groups, and relationships.

FIGURE 2.2 The Core of a Positive Culture

Methods • A sense of history • Communications • Positive problem solving • Stories about founders and leaders

• Leadership • Role model examples • Norms • Expectations • Values

• Reward systems • Career management and job security • Recruiting and staffing • Socialization of new staff members • Training and development

• Member contact • Participative decision making • Intergroup coordination • Personal exchange

A historical foundation

An understanding of what is expected Cohesive organizational culture Being a part of a group

Encourage interpersonal and intergroup relationships

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FIGURE 2.3 Four Types of Culture Sources: Adapted from R. Hooijberg and F. Petrock, “On Cultural Change: Using the Competing Values Framework to Help Leaders Execute a Transformation Strategy,” Human Resource Management 32 (1993): 29–50; and R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management: Mastering the Paradoxes and Competing Demands of High Performance (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988).

Formal Control Orientation

Chapter 2

Flexible

Clan culture

Entrepreneurial culture

Stable

Bureaucratic culture

Market culture

Internal

External

Organizational Culture 37

Forms of Attention

The nearby OB at Work provides some examples of the organizational cultures of five popular places to work.

Types of Culture Theorists and researches have offered and discussed various listings of different cultures. Such listings and typologies seek to generalize major cultural properties across more than one organization. Figure 2.3 presents a systematic and organized classification of types of culture.21 The vertical axis shows the control orientation in the firm or department, ranging from stable to flexible. The horizontal axis depicts the focus of attention from internal to external. The four cells present the four distinct cultures: bureaucratic, clan, entrepreneurial, and market. Some organizations have a dominant type of culture; other organizations have multiple cultures working simultaneously in different locations, departments, or projects. There is no superior, ideal, or fixed culture. There are, however, preferences by employees for particular cultures. For example, if an employee is working in a bureaucratic culture and prefers a more entrepreneurial culture, difficulties will likely develop. If the person-culture alignment becomes unduly stressful, it will probably result in the individual eventually leaving the organization.

Bureaucratic Culture An organization that emphasizes rules, policies, procedures, chain of command, and centralized decision making has a bureaucratic culture. The military, government agencies, and firms started and managed by autocratic managers are examples of bureaucratic culture. Some individuals prefer the certainty, hierarchy, and strict organization of such a culture.22

Clan Culture Being a part of a working family, following tradition and rituals, teamwork, spirit, selfmanagement, and social influence are characteristics of the clan culture. Employees are willing to work hard for a fair and equitable compensation and fringe benefit package. In a clan culture, employees are socialized by other members. Members help each other celebrate successes together. Nordstrom department stores rely on experienced “Nordies” to induct new employees and to show them the way to treat customers. New employees can observe the teamwork, tradition, and rituals that perpetuate Nordstrom’s commitment to customer service. Nordstrom is an example of how the clan culture can affect the behavior and performance of employees.23

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Entrepreneurial Culture Innovation, creativity, risk taking, and aggressively seeking opportunities illustrate an entrepreneurial culture. Employees understand that dynamic change, individual initiatives, and autonomy are standard practices. 3M is an example of an entrepreneurial culture. The internal philosophy is captured by the 3M motto, “Never kill a product idea.”24 Employees are encouraged and given autonomy to work on projects. 3M intends to invent new markets. The firm’s compensation packages, training programs, team-building strategies, and goal-setting programs encourage risk taking, autonomy, and innovation to achieve that goal.

Market Culture An emphasis on sales growth, increased market share, financial stability, and profitability are attributes of a market culture. Employees have a contractual relationship with the firm. There is little feeling of teamwork and cohesiveness in this type of culture. Examples of market culture organizations include Nike, Citigroup, Wells Fargo, and Allstate. Employees cooperate and work together to achieve market share and financial performance goals. This results in cooperation when necessary, but not deeply anchored relationships.25

Organizational Subcultures The discussion of bureaucratic, clan, entrepreneurial, and market cultures is addressing the predominant, overarching culture of an organization. Within this dominant culture are subcultures. Teams, projects, divisions, regions, and units may or may not have their own subcultures.26 Also, subcultures can form around types of work, such as doctors, nurses, and administrators in health care organizations.27 In some instances the subcultures enhance the dominant culture, while in other cases they may have the opposite effect and actually constitute a counterculture. Subcultures that are opposed to the dominant culture can create conflict, dissension, and frustration among employees. A subculture that is in alignment with dominant culture can be very rewarding.28 Programmers, design engineers, technicians, and system integrators work at Microsoft in their own subcultures under the umbrella of the dominant culture.29 The programmers speak their own language, help other programmers, and establish their own dress codes. In doing so, they still embrace the dominant culture’s attributes on innovation, risk taking, and individual self-motivation. The Microsoft entrepreneurial culture is congruent with the various subcultures, and the result is that the firm is a spawning ground for new ideas, products, and experimentation. The congruency allows Microsoft to adapt to changing environmental forces and to be attractive to potential employees who prefer to work in the type of culture and subculture that exists.

Merging Cultures Research indicates that less than one-quarter of mergers and acquisitions are financially successful in terms of return on investment. A particular merger fails to live up to expectations for numerous reasons. A major reason for joining with another organization is to grow quickly and inexpensively. There is also the notion that by sharing resources and applying leverage, merged companies can create and seize market opportunities better.30 The analysis to go ahead with a merger usually applies specific financial criteria. When the numbers look right, the deal is completed. Rarely is there any discussion of the cultural compatibility of the merging firms. Culture is considered a “soft” factor that shouldn’t be a main consideration. Paying closer attention to the compatibility of cultures, however, would appear to be worth the time and effort.

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SmithKline merged with British-based Beecham and both firms checked each other out financially, legally, and culturally.31 A consulting firm was hired to interview hundreds of managers from both firms to determine values, expectations, styles, and goals. Teams were created to facilitate the merger so that working together from the beginning would be more efficient. The SmithKline Beecham merger diagnosis, planning, and action steps provide an example of how to bring cultural attributes into consideration. Yet this thorough, diligent, and participative approach is rarely used in mergers. Before their merger was finalized, Pfizer and Warner-Lambert launched integration planning teams.32 Although financial issues dominated the negotiations, the teams worked on integration of the two cultures. Neglecting the cultural characteristics of each firm was considered risky and ill-advised by managers in both firms. They had observed many merger failures in their industry category and wanted to carefully focus on cultural issues. These two examples illustrate that while true due diligence in merger considerations should of course address financial and marketing issues, thoroughly probing cultural compatibility issues seems warranted as well. Other likely candidates for serious consideration of compatibility include the information technology systems, compensation and rewards systems, and the human resource talent pool. In conducting a thorough analysis of merger partners, SmithKline initially decided against further discussion with Glaxo Welcome PLC.33 The decision to not pursue the original merger was based on major differences in culture, management style, and managerial philosophy. Eventually though, the merger occurred, creating GlaxoSmithKline in 2000. As a result of research and available reports, it is recommended that discovery of dissimilar cultures may be sufficient reason not to close a merger deal. The realities of organizations indicate that culture clash can contribute to or cause a merger failure. Rigorously diagnosing and studying the dominant culture and subcultures in the firms considering a merger would be wise before closing a deal. The integration of cultures is a challenge even for managers who understand the significance of culture.34

Influencing Culture Change A limited amount of research has been done on cultural change. The difficulty in understanding culture becomes even more complex when attempting to bring about a significant cultural change. The themes that appear in the literature in discussing change are • Cultures are so elusive and hidden that they cannot be adequately diagnosed, managed, or changed. • Because it takes difficult techniques, rare skills, and considerable time to understand a culture and then additional time to change it, deliberate attempts at culture change are not really practical. • Cultures sustain people throughout periods of difficulty and serve to ward off anxiety. One of the ways they do this is by providing continuity and stability. Thus, people will naturally resist change to a new culture.35 These three views suggest that managers who are interested in attempting to produce cultural changes face a daunting task. There are, however, courageous managers who believe that they can intervene and make changes in the culture. Figure 2.4 presents a view of five intervention points for managers to consider.36 A considerable amount of knowledge suggests that one of the most effective ways of changing people’s beliefs and values is to first change their behavior (intervention 1).37 However, behavior change does not necessarily produce culture change because of the process of justification. The California electronics example introduced earlier clearly

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FIGURE 2.4 Changing Culture: Manager-Initiated Interventions

Behavior of employees 1

Cultural evolution and learning 6

Cultural communication 2

Terminating deviant and nonperforming employees 5

Recruitment and hiring 3

Socialization of new employees 4

Intervention points

Examples

1

Feedback/discussion of what is expected Discuss history, folklore, and stories Recruit and hire individuals aligned with the culture Training program; mentoring; coaching Terminating problem or nonperforming individuals using appropriate and fair due process

2 3 4 5

illustrates this point. Behavioral compliance does not mean cultural commitment. Managers must get employees to see the inherent worth in behaving in a new way (intervention 2). Typically, communication (intervention 2) is the method used by managers to motivate the new behaviors. Cultural communication can include announcements, memos, rituals, stories, dress, and other forms of communication. Another set of interventions includes recruitment and hiring (intervention 3) and then the socialization of new members (intervention 4) and the removal of existing members who deviate from the culture (intervention 5). Each of these interventions must be done after careful diagnoses are performed. Although some individuals may not perfectly fit the firm’s culture, they may possess exceptional skills and talents. Weeding out cultural misfits might be necessary, but it should be done only after weighing the costs and benefits of losing talented performers who deviate from the core cultural value system. Changing an organization’s culture takes time, effort, and persistence, especially in firms with strong cultures. Older strong culture organizations have established stories, use symbols, conduct rituals, and even use their own unique language. In a strong culture organization, the core values are widely shared, respected, and protected. Myths and stories are the tales about the organization that are passed down over time and communicate a story of the organization’s underlying values. Virtually any employee of Walmart can tell stories about Sam Walton and his behavior; how he rode around in his pickup truck, how he greeted people in the stores, and how he tended to “just show up” at different times. The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) has stories about its founder,

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H. Smith Richardson, who as a young man creatively used the mail to sell products. Richardson and other early contributors to the CCL believed that leaders needed to be bold and creative so that they could help their organizations adapt to change and avoid the traditional pitfalls of management.38 Rituals are recurring events or activities that reflect important aspects of the underlying culture. Mary Kay cosmetics has spectacular sales meetings for its top performers every year. Top-performing saleswomen are awarded an array of gifts—automobiles, diamonds, and fur coats—for achieving sales quotas. This ritual would be an indication of the value placed on high sales and meeting high quotas. Another kind of ritual is the retirement ceremony. Elaborate or modest retirement ceremonies may signal the relative importance an organization places on its people. Language concerns the jargon, or idiosyncratic terms, used in an organization that can serve several different purposes relevant to culture. First, the mere fact that some know the language and some do not indicates who is in the culture and who is not. Second, language can provide information about how people within a culture view others. Third, language can be used to help create a culture.39

Organizational Culture and Spirituality

spirituality Spirituality is a state orexperience that can provide individuals with direction or meaning, or provide feelings of understanding, support, inner wholeness, or connectedness.

Scandal and ethical lapses in global organizations have contributed to the increased demand for more attention and focus on spiritual and ethical dimensions in the organizational culture. Many companies are embracing these dimensions as never before. Chick-fil-A restaurants are closed on Sundays, Ford and Xerox sponsor spiritual retreats for employees, and Tyson Foods have workplace chaplains in the plants.40 The term spirituality has found its way into the organizational literature. The view of spirituality is that it originates from within the individual. A concise definition is offered by Smith and Rayment: Spirituality is a state or experience that can provide individuals with direction or meaning, or provide feelings of understanding, support, inner wholeness, or connectedness. Connectedness can be to themselves, other people, nature, the universe, a god, or some other supernatural power.41

This definition involves inner feelings, being connected to the work and to colleagues. Because work is such a major part of the lives of employees, organizational culture and practices can contribute to a person’s spiritual development and growth. Although research into workplace spirituality is still in its infancy, comprehensive models and empirical research have been developed to explain how spirituality can be facilitated at the workplace42 and developed to maximize the organization’s triple bottom line (e.g., “People, Planet, Profit”).43 Other recent research has explored the linkages between workplace spirituality and organizational behavior concepts such as transformational leadership, organizational citizenship behavior, organizational support, and procedural justice.44 Many advocates of workplace spirituality suggest that strong spiritual beliefs at work can spawn several important benefits at organizations.

Potential Benefits of Spirituality Research results suggest that the encouragement and support of spirituality in the work setting can contribute to creativity, honesty, trust, commitment, personal need satisfaction, and improved organizational effectiveness.45 For example, Wetherill Associates made honesty an important point of attention. The company created and implemented a policy where they promised that they will be completely honest when dealing with customers and suppliers. This emphasis on honesty also carried over into all interactions within the firm. (e.g., group to group, individual to individual). The

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reported results included higher morale, better job satisfaction, and improved effectiveness in relationships with customers and suppliers.46 The spirituality benefits in addition to improved effectiveness include attaining a broader worldview; concern with working with integrity; acquiring a strong sense of community; and a willingness to work to make a positive difference by making contributions to colleagues, stakeholders, and society. In addition to these benefits, there is the individual benefit of creating a more reasonable work/life balance, attitude, and set of behaviors.

Tom’s of Maine: A Spiritual Culture Tom Chappell and his wife, Kate, moved from the corporate world to Maine so that Tom could cofound his own firm.47 He wanted to create a company that produced innovative, natural personal care products for customers. Thirty-six years after cofounding Tom’s of Maine, Chappell formed a partnership with Colgate-Palmolive Company. He remains as a minority owner and CEO of the 2006 partnership. The fact that Chappell and his wife decided to produce and sell only products that would not harm the environment is a worthy accomplishment. From the beginning, Chappell emphasized spiritual values and intentions in operating his firm. He adhered to these values and listened to what his customers wanted in their products. The Tom’s of Maine seven spiritual values are the following: set aside your ego and connect to a universal force; know who you are and what you care about in life; envision your future in your heart and in your mind; listen to everyone carefully; align your business strategy with your values; use continual assessment to stay on course; and pass your good fortune, gifts, knowledge, and profits to others.48 Practicing these values diligently is one of the reasons that Tom’s of Maine is an excellent company that does what is right for its employees, customers, and community. By practicing management using the seven spiritual values, the firm has created a unique culture that encourages social responsibility while being profitable.

Critics of Spirituality in Organizations A number of critics and skeptics have questioned the meaningfulness and practical aspects of spirituality. There are critics who claim that a focus on spirituality means not being able to embrace the diversity of beliefs held by employees and stakeholders. Talking about integrity, honesty, sharing with others, and being open could take on an appearance of preaching. The preaching could turn off many individuals.49 The research findings on the positive benefits and problems of spirituality are still sparse. There is a lack of rigor, theoretical foundation, and research design in available studies of spirituality. Until the rigor, theoretical base, and research design can be improved and evidence that is based on scientific inquiry is available, there will be many skeptics of introducing spirituality dimensions in management practices.50 One of the key variables in spirituality discussions is the “ability to listen” to others. Such an ability to listen needs to be more carefully studied and analyzed. Is “listening” all that is needed, or must the leader also act effectively on what he or she hears? There is also the issue of finding the type of spirituality that fits best in the organization. There is not likely to be a single form or template of spirituality. What forms are congruent with an organization’s culture? This is still a largely unanswered question that needs to be considered before attempting to introduce spiritual practices and values.51 socialization The process by which organizations bring new employees into the culture.

Socialization and Culture Socialization is the process by which organizations bring new employees into the culture. In terms of culture, socialization involves a transmittal of values, assumptions, and attitudes

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from older to newer employees. Intervention 4 in Figure 2.4 emphasizes the “fit” between the new employee and the culture. Socialization attempts to make this fit more comfortable for the employee and the firm. The socialization process goes on throughout an individual’s career. As the needs of the organization change, for example, its employees must adapt to those needs; that is, they must be socialized. But even as we recognize that socialization is ever present, we must also recognize that it is more important at some times than at others. For example, socialization is most important when an individual first takes a job or takes a different job in the same organization. The socialization process occurs throughout various career stages, but individuals are more aware of it when they change jobs or change organizations.52

Socialization Stages The stages of socialization coincide generally with the stages of a career. Although researchers have proposed various descriptions of the stages of socialization,53 three stages sufficiently describe it: (1) anticipatory socialization, (2) accommodation, and (3) role management.54 As illustrated in Figure 2.5, each stage involves specific activities that, if undertaken properly, increase the individual’s chances of having an effective career. Moreover, these stages occur continuously and often simultaneously.

Anticipatory Socialization The first stage involves all those activities the individual undertakes prior to entering the organization or to taking a different job in the same organization. The primary purpose of these activities is to acquire information about the new organization, new job, or both. People are vitally interested in two kinds of information prior to entering a new job or organization. First, they want to know as much as then can about what working for the organization is really like. This form of learning about the organization is actually an attempt to assess the firm’s culture. Some individuals attempt to learn about the culture by reading everything they can about the organization, speaking to current or former employees, and asking questions of the recruiters and human resources representatives such as, “How would you describe the culture?” Second, they want to know whether they are suited to the jobs available in the organization. Individuals seek out this information with considerable effort when they are faced with the decision to take a job, whether it be their first one or one that comes along by way of transfer or promotion. At these times, the information is specific to the job or the organization.

FIGURE 2.5 Stages of Socialization

Stage 1: Anticipatory Socialization (Before starting new job)

Stage 2: Accommodation (After starting new job)

Stage 3: Role Management (After settling into new job)

Gather information about job and organization.

Adjust to people and demands of immediate workgroup.

Manage conflict between work and personal life, and between different work groups.

Key issues: Will I fit there? Will I do the job well? What are the people like?

Key issues: Is this what I expected? Can I relate well to my boss and peers?

Key issues: Can I resolve these conflicts? Will I be able to balance my work and personal life effectively?

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We also form impressions about jobs and organizations in less formal ways. For example, our friends and relatives talk of their experiences. Parents impart both positive and negative information to their offspring regarding the world of work. Although we continually receive information about this or that job or organization, we are more receptive to such information when faced with the necessity to make a decision. It is desirable, of course, that the information transmitted and received during the anticipatory stage accurately and clearly depicts the organization and the job. However, we know that individuals differ considerably in the way they decode and receive information. Yet if the fit between the individual and the organization is to be optimal, two conditions are necessary. The first condition is realism; both the individual and the organization must portray themselves realistically. The second condition is congruence. This condition is present when the individual’s skills, talents, and abilities are fully utilized by the job. Either their overutilization or underutilization results in incongruence and, consequently, poor performance.55 Transmitting the culture of a firm such as the Calvert Group, a Bethesda, Maryland, mutual funds company, is a part of the job interview. Determining whether there is congruence between the job applicant and the firm is important because the Calvert Group wants to hire employees who accept its way of conducting business. The firm has pioneered the concept of socially responsible investing. Community involvement is significant at the Calvert Group.56 The company gives workers 12 days a year off, with pay, to perform community services such as working in a soup kitchen, volunteering at local schools, cleaning up the environment, and delivering food to homebound individuals. The Calvert Group sponsors activities for senior citizens and homeless people, blood drives, Head Start, and a host of similar communitybased programs. Becoming an employee who fits Calvert Group’s culture requires a fit between a person’s values and the organization’s need to be involved with the community. Firms such as Nordstrom, Johnson & Johnson, and Hewlett-Packard have worked extremely hard, like the Calvert Group, to attract and retain employees who have values congruent with the firms’ unique cultures. For example, Nordstrom has built so strong a culture around serving the customer (letting go any employee who fails to become socialized) that the entire employee manual is a 5-by-8-inch card with one rule on it: “Use your good judgment in all situations.”57

Accommodation The second stage of socialization occurs after the individual becomes a member of the organization, after he or she takes the job. During this stage, the individual sees the organization and the job for what they actually are. Through a variety of activities, the individual attempts to become an active participant in the organization and a competent performer on the job. This breaking-in period is ordinarily stressful for the individual because of the anxiety created by the uncertainties inherent in any new and different situation. Apparently, individuals who experience realism and congruence during the anticipatory stage have a less stressful accommodation stage. Nevertheless, the demands on the individual do indeed create situations that induce stress. Four major activities constitute the accommodation stage: all individuals, to a degree, must engage in (1) establishing new interpersonal relationships with both co-workers and managers, (2) learning the tasks required to perform the job, (3) clarifying their role in the organization and in the formal and informal groups relevant to that role, and (4) evaluating the progress they are making toward satisfying the demands of the job and the role. Readers who have been through the accommodation stage probably recognize these four activities and recall more or less favorable reactions to them. If all goes well in this stage, the individual feels a sense of acceptance by co-workers and supervisors and experiences competence in performing job tasks. The breaking-in period,

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if successful, also results in role definition and congruence of evaluation. These four outcomes of the accommodation stage (acceptance, competence, role definition, and congruence of evaluation) are experienced by all new employees to a greater or lesser extent. However, the relative value of each of these outcomes varies from person to person.58 Acceptance by the group may be a less valued outcome for an individual whose social needs are satisfied off the job, for example. Regardless of these differences due to individual preferences, each of us experiences the accommodation stage of socialization and ordinarily moves on to the third stage.

Role Management In contrast to the accommodation stage, which requires the individual to adjust to demands and expectations of the immediate work group, the role management stage takes on a broader set of issues and problems. Specifically, during the third stage, conflicts arise. A common conflict is between the individual’s work and home lives. For example, the individual must divide time and energy between the job and his or her role in the family. Because the amount of time and energy is fixed and the demands of work and family are seemingly insatiable, conflict is inevitable. Employees unable to resolve these conflicts are often forced to leave the organization or to perform at an ineffective level. In either case, the individual and the organization are not well served by unresolved conflict between work and family. Another source of conflict during the role management stage is between the individual’s work group and other work groups in the organization. This source of conflict can be more apparent for some employees than for others. For example, as an individual moves up the organization’s hierarchy, he or she is required to interact with various groups both inside and outside the organization. Each group can and often does place different demands on the individual, and, to the extent that these demands are beyond the individual’s ability to meet them, stress results. Tolerance for the level of stress induced by these conflicting and irreconcilable demands varies among individuals. Generally, the existence of unmanaged stress works to the disadvantage of the individual and the organization.

Characteristics of Effective Socialization Organizational socialization processes vary in form and content from organization to organization. Even within the same organization, various individuals experience different socialization processes. For example, the accommodation stage for a college-trained management recruit is quite different from that of a person in the lowest-paid occupation in the organizations. As John Van Maanen has pointed out, socialization processes are not only extremely important in shaping the individuals who enter an organization, they are also remarkably different from situation to situation.59 This variation reflects either lack of attention by management to an important process or the uniqueness of the process as related to organizations and individuals. Either explanation permits the suggestion that while uniqueness is apparent, some general principles can be implemented in the socialization process.60

Effective Anticipatory Socialization The organization’s primary activities during the first stage of socialization are recruitment and selection and placement programs. If these programs are effective, new recruits in an organization should experience the feeling of realism and congruence. In turn, accurate expectations about the job result from realism and congruence. Recruitment programs are directed toward new employees, those not now in the organization. It is desirable to give prospective employees information not only about the job but

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also about those aspects of the organization that affect the individual. It is nearly always easier for the recruiter to stress job-related information to the exclusion of organizationrelated information. Job-related information is usually specific and objective, whereas organization-related information is usually general and subjective. Nevertheless, the recruiter should, to the extent possible, convey factual information about such matters as pay and promotion policies and practices, objective characteristics of the work group the recruit is likely to join, and other information that reflects the recruit’s concerns.61

Effective Accommodation Socialization Effective accommodation socialization comprises five different activities: (1) designing orientation programs, (2) structuring training programs, (3) providing performance evaluation information, (4) assigning challenging work, and (5) assigning demanding bosses. Orientation programs are seldom given the attention they deserve. Sometimes referred to as “onboarding,” the first few days on a new job can have very strong negative or positive impact on the new employee. Taking a new job involves not only new job tasks but also new interpersonal relationships. The new person comes into an ongoing social system that has evolved a unique set of values, ideals, frictions, conflicts, friendships, coalitions, and all the other characteristics of work groups. If left alone, the new employee must cope with the new environment in ignorance, but if given some help and guidance, he or she can cope more effectively.62 Avon doesn’t believe in this “sink or swim” mentality when it comes to socializing new employees. Newcomers are thoroughly educated about Avon’s organizational culture and ways of doing business. Similarly, when new employees join Citigroup, they are immediately told about the 37 employee networks (e.g., Hispanic, working parents, etc.) that help socialize newcomers within the 320,000-employee firm.63 Thus, organizations should design orientation programs that enable new employees to meet the rest of the employees as soon as possible. Moreover, specific individuals should be assigned the task of orientation. These individuals should be selected for their social skills and be given time off from their own work to spend with the new people. The degree to which the orientation program is formalized can vary, but in any case, the program should not be left to chance. Training programs are invaluable in the breaking-in stage. Without question, training programs are necessary to instruct new employees in proper techniques and to help them develop requisite skills. Moreover, effective training programs provide frequent feedback about progress in acquiring the necessary skills. What is not so obvious is the necessity of integrating formal training with the orientation program. Performance evaluation, in the context of socialization, provides important feedback about how well the individual is getting along in the organization. Inaccurate or ambiguous information regarding this important circumstance can only lead to performance problems. To avoid these problems, it is imperative that performance evaluation sessions take place in face-to-face meetings between the individual and manager and that in the context of the job the performance criteria must be as objective as possible. Management by objectives and behaviorally anchored rating scales are particularly applicable in these settings. Assigning challenging work to new employees is a principal feature of effective socialization programs. The first jobs of new employees often demand far less of them than they are able to deliver. Consequently, they are unable to demonstrate their full capabilities, and in a sense they are being stifled. This is especially damaging if the recruiter was overly enthusiastic in “selling” the organization when they were recruited. Assigning demanding bosses is a practice that seems to have considerable promise for increasing the retention rate of new employees. In this context, “demanding” should not be interpreted as “autocratic.” Rather, the boss most likely to get new hirees off in the right

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TABLE 2.1 A Checklist of Effective Socialization Practices

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Socialization Stage

Practices

Anticipatory socialization

1. Recruitment using realistic job previews 2. Selection and placement using realistic career paths

Accommodation socialization

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Role management socialization

1. Provision of professional counseling 2. Adaptive and flexible work assignments 3. Sincere person-oriented managers

Tailor-made and individualized orientation programs Social as well as technical skills training Supportive and accurate feedback Challenging work assignments Demanding but fair supervisors

direction is one who has high but achievable expectations for their performance. Such a boss instills the understanding that high performance is expected and rewarded; equally important, the boss is always ready to assist through coaching and counseling.

Effective Role Management Socialization Organizations that effectively deal with the conflicts associated with the role management stage recognize the impact of such conflicts on job satisfaction and turnover. Even though motivation and high performance may not be associated with socialization activities, satisfaction and turnover are, and organizations can ill afford to lose capable employees. Retention of employees beset by off-the-job conflicts is enhanced in organizations that provide professional counseling and that schedule and adjust work assignments for those with particularly difficult conflicts at work and home. Of course, these practices do not guarantee that employees can resolve or even cope with the conflict. The important point, however, is for the organization to show good faith and make a sincere effort to adapt to the problems of its employees. Table 2.1 summarizes what managers can do to encourage effective socialization.

Mentors and Socialization

mentor A friend, coach, adviser, or sponsor who supports, encourages, and helps a less experienced protégé.

In the medical field, young interns learn proper procedures and behavior from established physicians; PhD students learn how to conduct organizational research from professors who have conducted studies. What about the process of learning or working with a senior person, called a mentor, in work settings? In Greek mythology, the mentor was the designation given to a trusted and experienced adviser. Odysseus, absent from home because of the Trojan Wars, charged his servant, Mentor, with the task of educating and guiding his son. In work organizations, a mentor can provide coaching, friendship, sponsorship, and role modeling to a younger, less experienced protégé. In working with younger or new employees, a mentor can satisfy his or her need to have an influence on another employee’s career. The OB at Work feature on the next page illustrates that mentoring occasionally can become problematic, however. Research has indicated that a majority of managers report having had at least one mentoring relationship during their careers.64 Considered a best practice, mentoring programs are used by approximately 71 percent of Fortune 500 firms.65 Kram has identified two general functions of mentoring: career functions and psychosocial functions. The career functions include sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, production, and challenging assignments. The psychosocial functions are role modeling, acceptance and confirmation, counseling, and friendship.66

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Mentoring Can Go Haywire

Mentoring involves a person with experience, knowledge, and a network who attempts to help, guide, and support a protégé (mentee) with career, problem solving, and development. Unfortunately, the mentor–mentee relationship doesn’t always go according to plan. Some estimate that approximately 70 percent of the largest firms in the United States have some type of mentoring program. The “script” claims that everyone—the mentor, mentee, and employer—will benefit from a good mentoring program. One of the most common problems, especially with a formal mentoring program, is simply that the mentor and apprentice are incompatible. As we all know, there’s no perfect way to account for individual differences and, especially, emotions. Even the best intentions and most thorough questionnaires can’t always identify what might really irritate you about the other person. Different personality quirks, needs, goals, schedules, work/life balance preferences, and backgrounds can quickly frustrate a relationship. Sometimes the mismatch goes deeper, though. One young woman who didn’t want to be identified left a company within a year of joining, in part because she thought her mentor wasn’t doing right by some of their smaller, less significant clients. “Those weren’t skills I wanted to cultivate,” she says. Respect isn’t enough, though. Ideally, both people know what they want out of the arrangement. “I haven’t seen a real powerful relationship that didn’t have specific goals,” says Kim Wise, the head of Mentor Resources. These might include how to manage a project or a team or a budget; or developing an expertise that makes a promotion more likely. And once any of that happens, it’s usually time to move on, maybe to another mentor. The most successful of these relationships last no more than a year. That doesn’t mean the mentee can’t go back for advice or keep in touch. “Don’t obliterate the relationship. Change the intensity,” says Sheila Wellington, author of Be Your Own Mentor, who has outgrown a few mentors herself. Her other piece of advice: try to end gracefully, but unequivocally. Things can get ugly when mentors won’t accept that a mentee no longer needs them. This is particularly common

when male mentors get too comfortable in their role as career coach, especially when working with women. When the mentee gains confidence, experience, and knowledge, he or she wants more autonomy to act alone. Pretty soon the relationship deteriorates. The mentee wants to move forward without constraints. Mentors can run into serious problems as well, none more so than the ulterior motive. Sometimes the protégé simply wants the mentor’s job. That’s what happened recently to a female executive who has been mentoring women for 30 years. She describes the experience as being “thrown under the bus.” She had been working with a young woman for several months when her boss began asking pointed questions about her own performance. She couldn’t figure out why until colleagues told her that her “student” was whispering in the boss’s ear. “I didn’t want to believe it,” says the executive. “No one had been that duplicitous or self-serving before.” Now she wants the young woman fired. Some displays of ambition aren’t quite that raw, but they still do damage, like when the young charge thinks he knows more than the mentor. Richard Laermer, the 46-year-old chief executive of RLM PR and co-author of the book Punk Marketing, was developing a talented protégé who seemingly could do no wrong. Then, one day, the young guy decided that a client’s business model wasn’t sufficiently impressive to warrant attention. Laermer says he didn’t realize what was happening until the client fired his firm. He was chagrined by the incident. “Who taught him that?” he wondered. Laermer never raised the matter with his protégé, and weeks later the man left the company of his own accord. Sources: Adapted from Garry Kranz, “More Firms Paying Mind to Mentoring,” Workforce Management 89, no. 1 (January 2010): 10; Susan Berfield, “Mentoring Can Be Messy,” Businessweek, January 29, 2007, pp. 80–82; and John J. Sosik, Veronica M. Godshalk, & Francis J. Yammarino, “Transformational Leadership, Learning Goal Orientation, and Expectations for Career Success in Mentor-Protégé Relationships: A Multiple Levels of Analysis Perspective,” The Leadership Quarterly 15 (2004): 241–261.

reverse mentoring A process by which junior-level employees support, encourage, and help senior-level managers. A common focus of reverse mentoring is technology, an area with which juniorlevel employees often have more experience and knowledge.

Although mentoring functions can be important in socializing a person, it is not clear that a single individual must play all of these roles. New employees can obtain valuable career and psychosocial influence from a variety of individuals—managers, peers, trainers, and friends. Also, there is some anecdotal evidence that suggests that “reverse mentoring” can be equally beneficial for the mentors, protégés, and the organization. Some organizations like General Electric ask the younger, more technologically savvy employees to “mentor” their senior managers on issues regarding social networking, online trends, and so forth.67 At Ford Motor Company, a study was conducted to develop guidelines to socialize new management trainees.

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TABLE 2.2 Evolution of the Mentor Relationship

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Phase

Definition

Turning Points*

1. Initiation

The relationship gets started and Fantasies become concrete expectations, begins to have importance for Expectations are met; mentor provides both the mentor and mentee. coaching, challenging work, visibility; mentee provides assistance, respect, and desire to be mentored.

2. Cultivation

The career, developmental, and personal growth of the mentee occurs.

Both mentor and mentee benefit from the relationship. Opportunities for meaningful and more frequent interaction increase. An emotional and personal bond develops.

3. Trial Separation Mentee goes it alone in problem solving, completing work, and developing networks.

Mentee goes it alone; has some success and some failure; consults and receives feedback from the mentor. Mentor and mentee experience separation anxiety.

4. Separation

The structural role relationship and/or the emotional experience of the relationship changes.

Mentee no longer wants or seeks guidance. Mentor is less available to provide mentoring functions.

5. Redefinition

A period afterthe separation phase during which the relationship is ended or takes on significantly different characteristics, making it a more equal relationship.

Stresses of separation diminish and new relationships are formed. The mentor relationship is no longer needed in its previous form.

*Examples of the most frequently observed psychological and organizational factors that cause movement into the current relationship phase.

Most mentor–mentee relationships develop over time, and there appear to be several distinct phases of mentor–mentee relationships. Table 2.2 presents a model that highlights some of the key phases of the mentor–mentee relationship. The reasons that cause movement in the relationship are described as turning points. Initiation, cultivation, separation, and redefinition cover general periods of six months to more than five years. The benefits that result from mentoring can extend beyond the individuals involved. Mentoring can contribute to employee motivation and retention and the cohesiveness of the organization.68 The organization’s culture can be strengthened by passing the core values from one generation to the next. The increasing diversity of the workforce adds a new dimension to the mentor– mentee matching process. People are attracted to mentors who talk, look, act, and communicate like them. Gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and availability of computers can all play a role in matching. If mentor–mentee matching is left to occur naturally, women, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians may be left out.69 The underrepresentation of these groups in management-level positions needs to be evaluated in each firm that considers using mentor–mentee matching. One study showed that cross-gender relationships can be beneficial. The results of 32 mentor–mentee pairings (14 male–female; 18 female–female) found that male–female mentor matchings can be as successful as female–female mentoring.70

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Socializing a Culturally Diverse Workforce

diversity The vast array of physical and cultural differences that constitute the spectrum of human attributes.

The United States consists of people with many religions, many cultures, and many different roots: African, European, Asian, South American, Middle Eastern, and Indian. Today, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics constitute about 30.3 percent of the U.S. labor force.71 In 2009, about 43.2 percent of the total workforce was female.72 We hear a lot about diversity, but what it means is sometimes confusing.73 Diversity is not a synonym for equal employment opportunity (EEO), nor is it another word for affirmative action. Diversity is the vast array of physical and cultural differences that constitute the spectrum of human attributes. Six core dimensions of diversity exist: age, ethnicity, gender, physical attributes, race, and sexual/affectional orientation. These are the core elements of diversity that have a lifelong effect on behavior and attitudes. Secondary forms of diversity—the differences that people acquire, discard, or modify throughout their lives—can be changed. Secondary dimensions of diversity include educational background, marital status, religious beliefs, health disabilities, and work experience. Valuing diversity from an organizational and leadership perspective means understanding and valuing core and secondary diversity dimension differences between oneself and others. An increasingly important goal in a changing society is to understand that all individuals are different and to appreciate these differences.74

Management’s Ability to Capitalize on Diversity Due to the changing demographics in the United States, differences in the employee pool are going to continue to increase over the next few decades. Managers will have to study socialization much more closely and intervene so that the maximum benefits result from hiring an increasingly diverse workforce. Studying the ethnic background and national culture of these workers will have to be taken seriously. The managerial challenge will be to identify ways to integrate the increasing number and mix of people from diverse national cultures into the workplace. Some obvious issues for managers of ethnically diverse work-forces to consider include these: • • • • •

Coping with employees’ unfamiliarity with the English language. Increased training for service jobs that require communication skills. Cultural (national) awareness training for the current workforce. Learning which rewards are valued by different ethnic groups. Developing career development programs that fit the skills, needs, and values of the ethnic group. • Rewarding managers for effectively recruiting, hiring, and integrating a diverse workforce. • Focusing not only on ethnic diversity but also learning more about age, gender, and workers with disability diversities. Socializing an ethnically diverse workforce is a two-way proposition. Not only must the manager learn about the employees’ cultural background, the employee must also learn about the rituals, customs, and values of the firm or the work unit.75 Awareness workshops and orientation sessions are becoming more popular every day. For example, Merck has an educational program to raise its employees’ awareness of and attitudes about women and minorities.76 The program emphasizes how policies and systems can be tailored to meet

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Organizational Culture 51

changes in the demographics of the workplace. Procter & Gamble has stressed the value of diversity. The firm uses multicultural advisory teams, minority and women’s networking conferences, and “onboarding” programs to help new women and minority employees become acclimated and productive as quickly as possible. Ortho Pharmaceutical initiated a program to “manage diversity” that is designed to foster a process of cultural transition within the firm. Northeastern Products Company established an onsite English as a Second Language (ESL) program to meet the needs of Hispanic and Asian employees. A buddy system has been established at Ore-Ida. A buddy (English speaker) is assigned to a new employee (whose first language is not English) to assist him or her with communication problems. The Seattle-Times Co. (newspaper publisher), with 24 percent minority employment, conducts a two-day training session called “Exploration into Diversity” 10 times a year. The training program covers such issues as diversity, multiculturalism, and pluralism. The trainees define terms, discuss obstacles to achieving pluralism, present experiences, present concepts of stereotyping and prejudices, and cover methods to overcome obstacles. Follow-up sessions are also a part of the Seattle-Times’s approach to improving diversity awareness.77 The Seattle-Times Co. has won several awards for being a national leader in inclusivity and equality.78 Global competition, like changing domestic demographics, is placing a new requirement on managers to learn about unfamiliar cultures from which new employees are coming. The emphasis on open expression of diversity in the workforce is paralleled by a social movement toward the retention of ethnic roots. The “new ethnicity,” a renewed awareness and pride of cultural heritage, can become an advantage of American firms operating in foreign countries.79 Using the multicultural workforce to better compete, penetrate, and succeed in foreign cultures is one potential benefit of managing diversity effectively.

Summary of Key Points

• Culture is a pattern of assumptions that are invented, discovered, or developed to learn to cope with organizational life. Socialization is a process by which organizations bring new employees into the culture. • Simply declaring that “this” will be the culture is not realistic. Culture evolves over time. It can be influenced by powerful individuals such as Ray Kroc at McDonald’s or Walt Disney, but it typically evolves and becomes real when people interact and work together. • Organizations can achieve effectiveness only when employees share values. The values of an increasingly diverse workforce are shaped long before a person enters an organization. Thus, it is important to recruit, select, and retain employees whose values best fit the value of the firm. • Four dominant cultures can be identified: bureaucratic, clan, entrepreneurial, and market. These cultures vary in terms of control and focus of attention. • Spirituality has become a topic of interest in discussing management practices. The way a person feels and thinks about life and work is starting to be included in some organizations as a crucial lever for optimizing performance. • Socialization is the process by which organizations bring new employees into the culture. There is a passing of values, assumptions, and attitudes from older to newer workers. • Mentoring is an important approach for developing protégés under the guidance of a mentor.

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Discussion and Review Questions

1. Organizational culture is a difficult concept to define. How would you define the culture of an organization you have been employed by or observed? 2. A growing number of Americans work for internationally-owned firms that operate in the United States. Do you think that these American employees are being influenced by the international owner’s approach to management and the culture of the country of the owner? 3. Identify the three main socialization stages. Which of these stages is most important for developing high-performing employees? Explain. 4. If the process of organizational socialization is inevitable, why is it important that it be managed? 5. How can a leader or founder help create a strong culture in an organization? Can any founder create a culture? Explain. 6. Why is it so important that organizations keep trying to encourage productive mentoring relationships between senior- and junior-level employees? What are some of the challenges associated with mentoring programs? 7. What should managers of diverse workforces know about differences in values among individuals? 8. What do advocates claim about the influence of spirituality on the performance of employees? 9. Why is it so difficult to change an organizational culture that is considered strong or influential in affecting the behavior of employees? 10. In what ways does organizational culture influence a company’s effectiveness and performance?

Taking It to the Net

One of the Best Firms This chapter discussed diversity in the workforce and its impact on organizations’ culture. First, visit the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site and examine information about diversity and demographics forecasts. Second, secure a hard copy of or view online the most recent Fortune’s “America’s 50 Best Companies for Minorities.” Last, select one of the firms and determine why it is considered favorably in the ranking. Prepare a brief presentation explaining what you learned from reviewing the information and statistics of one of Fortune’s 50 best companies.

Case for Analysis: Toyota’s Culture and the “Sticky Pedal” Recall Toyota is an extremely successful automaker that has built a reputation for quality by fostering a culture of continuous improvement and long-term relationships with employees, vendors, customers, and other key stakeholders. With such a strong organizational culture, how did the company reach a point in which it was criticized for not sharing enough information about the unintended acceleration problems that were documented

in the form of complaints as far back as March 3, 2004? Six years later in 2010, Toyota paid a steep price for initially ignoring or not proactively dealing with the acceleration problem; it conducted a massive recall of more than 8 million vehicles to fix the faulty gas pedals. Not only did the company’s reputation take a large hit, but U.S. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood slapped a $16.4 million fine against the automaker.

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Many people were upset with Toyota’s handling of the crisis and apparent lack of transparent communication about the extent and cause of the problem. For some time after complaints of unintended acceleration were filed with authorities and the company, Toyota maintained that the cause of the acceleration was poorly fitting floor mats. It took until January 2010 for the company to make the decision to replace the faulty accelerator pedals. Toyota’s organizational culture may be partly to blame for the ill will that was created over the handling of the faulty accelerators problem. First, Toyota’s culture of keeping potentially negative information locked tightly within the firm is at odds with what many organizations do during a crisis in the U.S. For example, the leaders of Johnson & Johnson made it a point to communicate with the public major developments regarding the cyanide-laced Tylenol capsule tamperings in 1982. Second, Toyota’s leadership may be too insulated to allow it full or timely access to negative information. This problem may be due to the fact that Toyota has a formal, hierarchical organizational structure that prevents negative information from reaching the top. Will Toyota rebound and regain its global prominence as a top quality automaker? Some experts suggest

Organizational Culture 53

that the company will eventually work through and resolve these accelerator-related problems. However, another question remains: Will the company also attempt to modify its culture so that it can handle future crises in a more open and timely manner?

QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 1. Why did Toyota wait so long to publically acknowledge and replace the faulty accelerator pedals? 2. Changing a culture from one that rewards secrecy to one that is more transparent (especially in a crisis) appears to be difficult. Why? 3. If you were the president of the Toyota Motor Corporation, how would you have handled the unintended acceleration problems? Explain. Sources: Adapted from Josh Mitchell and Kate Linebaugh, “Toyota Faces $16.4 Million U.S. Fine,” Wall Street Journal (April 6, 2010); Laurie A. Harbour, “Toyota: Crisis & The Importance of Culture,” Automotive & Design Production 122, no. 2 (March/April 2010): 12–13; Norihiko Shirouzu and Mariko Sanchanta, “Support Wavers At Toyota For Chief,” Wall Street Journal, February 23, 2010, p. A.4; “Leaders: Accelerating Into Trouble, Toyota,” The Economist, February 13, 2010,, p. 14; Kate Linebaugh, Dionne Searcey, and Norihiko Shirouzu, “Secretive Culture Led Toyota Astray,” Wall Street Journal (February 10, 2010), p. A1.

Experiential Exercise: Testing National Culture Knowledge OBJECTIVES 1. To test your understanding of cultural differences. 2. To compare your understanding and international experiences with classmates.

STARTING THE EXERCISE 1. Each student should complete the seven-category survey. 2. Score your individual answers with the answer key. 3. Form groups of five or six and compare international experiences. Did individuals with more international experience score better? 4. Within the group, discuss steps that could be taken to improve individual knowledge of cultural differences.

GOING GLOBAL? TEST YOUR BUSINESS ETIQUETTE KNOWLEDGE (SOME QUESTIONS HAVE MORE THAN ONE ANSWER) 1. During business meetings, use first names in a. Great Britain, because everyone is so chummy. b. Australia, because informality is the rule. c. China, because the first name is the surname. d. Japan, because the last names are easy to mispronounce. 2. In China, offer expensive gifts to your hosts a. Every time they ask for one. b. When you need help getting out of the country. c. Never. If they can’t reciprocate it, they’ll lose face.

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3. In which country is a business card an object of respect? a. Japan. An executive’s identity depends on his employer. b. Taiwan. It explains a person’s rank and status. c. France, especially cards describing a man’s experience. 4. When doing business in Japan, never a. Touch someone. b. Leave your chopsticks in the rice. c. Take people to pricier restaurants than they took you to. d. All of the above. 5. Power breakfasts are inappropriate in all but a. Italy. The natives like to bring the family along. b. Mexico. People don’t bother to get to work till 10 a.m. anyway. c. the United States. We invented them. d. France. People are at their most argumentative in the morning.

6. In some countries, colors are key. Which is true? a. For Koreans, writing a person’s name in red signifies death. b. In China and Japan, gifts wrapped in white or black should be presented only at funerals. c. Purple suits in Great Britain represent lack of taste. 7. Which of these choices are obscene gestures? a. The okay sign in Brazil. b. A hearty slap on the back in Switzerland. c. Doing anything with the left hand in Saudi Arabia. d. Thumb between second and third finger in Japan.

ANSWERS 1—b, c; 2—c; 3—a, b; 4—d; 5—c; 6—a, b; 7—a, c, d. Source: Business World, May 1990, p. 27.

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T H R E E

Managing Globally

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Introduction

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 3, you should be able to Define What is meant by globalization. Understand Why the study of cross-cultural management is important. Discuss The global skills managers must learn and apply to deal with a changing world. Compare How the characteristics of culture can influence the behavior and attitudes of employees. Identify Hofstede’s original cultural dimensions and research his work inspired.

The Virtual Expatriate Robert Adams, an American, has worked for a multinational company headquartered in the United States for over seven years. Perceived as a fast-track manager destined for executive-level status, Adams has performed well in a variety of domestic assignments. However, his supervisor has just asked him to take a three-year expatriate assignment in a high-potential foreign subsidiary some 7,000 miles from headquarters. Although Adams recognizes the importance of developing international language, cultural, and business skills, he has several concerns regarding this long-term assignment: It could make him “out of sight, out of mind” with regard to promotions and politics back at headquarters; his spouse may not be willing to put her career on hold; and his children are about to enter high school and do not want to leave their peer groups. Adams solved this potential dilemma by suggesting to his manager that he become a virtual expatriate,* meaning he would commute back and forth between the international subsidiary and headquarters. Even though he would be away from home for several days each month, Adams and his family would not have to sell their house and relocate overseas. This way, he would be able to protect his career interests at headquarters while not disrupting his spouse’s career or children’s social development by relocating overseas. *Note: The “virtual expatriate” is a popular type of global assignee that has been referred to by a number of authors, including David G. Collins, Hugh Scullion, and Michael J. Morley, “Changing Patterns of Global Staffing in the Multinational Enterprise: Challenges to the Conventional Expatriate Assignment and Emerging Alternatives,” Journal of World Business 42, no. 2 (2007): 198–213; Shailaja Neelakantan, “India Looks beyond Outsourcing as Technology Firms Innovate,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2003; Steve Bates, “Study Discovers Patterns in Global Executive Mobility,” HRMagazine 47, no. 10 (October 2002); 14–15; Stephanie Armour, “Commute a Chore? Try USA to London—Quick Trips Can Make More Sense than Relocating for Short-Term Jobs,” USA Today, November 9, 2000; and Julia Flynn, “E-mail, Cellphones and Frequent Flier Miles Let ‘Virtual’ Expats Work Abroad but Live at Home,” Wall Street Journal, October 25, 1999.

In the world of business, organizations that manage the myriad of global interrelationships and interdependencies will achieve higher levels of organizational effectiveness and competitive advantage.1 Products, capital, and human resources are becoming interdependent as business entities increasingly consider their market areas as being global rather than simply domestic.2 An increasing number of enterprises search for markets, resources, and human assets in every corner of the globe. Fast-track managers like Robert Adams need to be encouraged to acquire global skills and experiences. Today, fewer and fewer entrepreneurs and businesses find that they can prosper and grow solely within the confines of a domestic market with employees who lack an international perspective.

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As the globalization of business continues, organizations must be analyzed and managed in a new way.3 Simply considering how office workers behave and perform at Apple headquarters in Cupertino, California, and then attempting to generalize findings and conclusions and apply them to office workers at Lenovo Group (which purchased IBM’s PC business in 2005) in Beijing, China, is not sufficient. American office workers and Chinese office workers definitely think and behave in different ways. Behavior, structure, and processes are all crucial to the successful operation of an enterprise. However, as globalization spreads, it is important to acknowledge, study, interpret, and manage differences across countries and groups of employees in these areas.4 In this chapter, we examine organizational behavior from a globalization perspective, starting with an introduction of the requirements for the global manager who must operate in the 21st century. The chapter focuses primarily on culture and cultural variation, areas that managers must understand to compete effectively in a world that’s undergoing rapid transformation.5 In his book, The Work of Nations, Robert Reich notes that “we are living through a transformation that will rearrange the politics and economics of the 21st century. There will be no national products or technologies, no national corporations, no national industries.”6 Reich points out that many corporations are becoming “global webs” in which products are international composites. He also argues that a nation’s commitment to developing its people is the prime way to ensure global competitiveness. If development of people is vital on a national level, it is certainly vital on an organizational level.

Globalization

globalization The interdependency of transportation, distribution, communication, and economic networks across international borders.

International businesses have existed for years. Today, however, economic and business activity includes global strategic alliances, worldwide production and distribution, and regional integration agreements such as the European Union, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and North American Free Trade Agreement. Globalization is defined as this interdependency of transportation, distribution, communication, and economic networks across international borders. As the OB at Work feature illustrates, one controversial example of globalization is outsourcing (offshoring) of jobs to international locations. Marketing scholar and researcher Theodore Levitt maintains that the existence of truly global markets demands a new type of corporation.7 He believes the global corporation has replaced the multinational corporation as the most effective international competitor. The multinational corporation conducts its business in various countries, adapting its products and practices to local conditions by customizing products for specific markets. In contrast, the global corporation avoids the high relative costs of the multinational corporation by offering universal standardized products for a homogeneous world market. Developing successful global strategies and approaches to managing diverse workers has become a new requirement for managers.8 It is often the case that management practices in an organization relate to the nationality of its ownership rather than to the particular locations of its facilities.9 However, it is no longer enough to simply assume that a motivational approach, job design technique, or performance review system will have similar results for all workers in all settings.10 The evolution of business from being primarily domestic oriented to more globally oriented will require new thinking and new managerial skills.11 Table 3.1 traces changes since 1945 (when a domestic orientation dominated the American manager’s attitude) to the present in such areas as competitiveness, structure, and cultural sensitivity. Take, for example, the Ford Motor Company, which was founded in 1903. Although it enjoyed widespread success in the U.S. domestic market, it was not until the 1960s that the company evolved from phase I to phase II by aggressively pursuing international expansion. In 1967, Ford of Europe was established, which eventually helped

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O B AT W O R K

Offshoring: Does It Create or Replace Jobs in the Global Marketplace?

There’s a good chance that recently you have seen a nightly newscast or read a blog or news summary on your smartphone reporting that another U.S. company is “offshoring” or “outsourcing” part of its back-office, customer service, or computer operations to a vendor in an international location such as India. The trend is real. An increasing number of firms are sending a part of their operations—software development, call centers, payroll, loan and insurance claims processing, and so forth—to an offshore location. U.S. firms such as General Electric, Oracle, Motorola, Cisco, Intel, and Prudential engage in offshore activities. Opponents of offshoring argue that such decisions cost Americans their jobs. These critics claim that bottom-line-oriented American executives are too willing to lay off Americans to save some money in labor costs (an individual working at a call center in Bangalore, India, makes considerably less than her counterpart in Cleveland, Ohio). They contend that exporting jobs will have the unintended effects of increasing unemployment and transferring wealth to workers in other countries. Do the statistics support these claims? The data provide mixed results. On one hand, companies that provide outsourcing services in India (e.g., Infosys Technologies Ltd., Wipro Ltd., and Tata Consultancy Services) have experienced very rapid growth in recent years. These and other companies make up part of the $3.5 billion call-center and back-office industry in India. This high-growth (and high-profit) industry has led to a recent wave of acquisitions, including one made by IBM, which agreed to pay $150 million for Daksh eServices, the third-largest call-center and back-office service provider, with revenues of $60 million. In a similar move, Citigroup is increasing its ownership stake in another Indian outsourcing firm, e-Serve International Ltd. Certainly, it could be argued that such trends will lead to job growth for Indian workers, most likely at a cost to American jobs. On the other hand, proponents of free trade argue that outsourcing is an economically healthy and acceptable practice that should be allowed to flourish. These individuals point out that such free trade practices have led to job growth and profits

cross-cultural management The study of the behavior of individuals in organizations around the world.

for U.S. organizations that provide such services as legal work, computer programming, telecommunications, banking, engineering, management consulting, and other private services to the world market. The U.S. Department of Commerce reported in December 2009 that the value of such U.S. exports of services had reached $507.5 billion. This far exceeded the amount of service imports (e.g., outsourcing of such private services as call centers and data-processing operations to other countries), which totaled $371.2 billion in 2009. In essence, U.S. companies that successfully sell services to the rest of the world are much more likely to be able to grow their businesses and employ larger numbers of U.S. employees. In addition to the trade surplus argument, proponents of free trade point to the number of large Indian companies that have set up large operations in the United States. For example, Tata Consultancy Services (part of Tata Group) has established 47 worksites in the United States to serve customers that include American Express Co., Citigroup Inc., ChevronTexaco Corp., and Eli Lilly & Co. This translates to the creation of more U.S. jobs. In sum, outsourcing/offshoring is a controversial business practice that represents one aspect of how the globalization of business across national borders is occurring in today’s economy. To be effective, managers should understand how globalization affects their domestic operations and influences the effective management of their human resources around the globe. Sources: Dave Blanchard, “Making It Work Overseas,” Industry Week 259, no. 3 (2010: 51; “U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services—December 2009,” U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC (February 10, 2010); Steve Hamm, “How Accenture One-Upped Bangalore: It Leads the Pack in Tech Services, Melding Offshoring and Classic Consulting,” Businessweek, April 23, 2007, p. 98; Manjeet Kripalani and Steve Hamm, “Merger Fever Breaks out in Bangalore,” Businessweek, April 26, 2004, p. 56; Joanna Slater, “IBM to Buy Indian Call-Center Firm,” Wall Street Journal, April 8, 2004, p. B.6; Jay Solomon and Elena Cherney, “A Global Journal Report: Outsourcing to India Sees a Twist,” Wall Street Journal, April 1, 2004, p. A.2; and Michael M. Phillips, “More Work Is Outsourced to U.S. Than Away from It, Data Show,” Wall Street Journal, March 15, 2004, p. A.2.

Ford to enter phase III of corporate evolution, the multinational stage.12 Phase IV of evolution, the global stage, emphasizes that firms need to understand their customers’ and other stakeholders’ needs, quickly translate them into products and services on a least-cost basis, and market them effectively. Ford is attempting to accomplish this by selling off its luxury brands (i.e., Jaguar, Land Rover, and Volvo) so that it can meet tougher carbon emission guidelines in different countries.13 The ability to diagnose customers’ and stakeholders’ needs, manage cross-cultural transactions, manage multinational teams, and form and manage effective global alliances is crucial to succeeding in the fourth phase. Cross-cultural management involves the study of the behavior of individuals in organizations around the world. The study describes organizational behavior within countries and

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TABLE 3.1 Corporate and Cross-Cultural Evolution Sources: See N. J. Adler and F. Ghadar, “International Strategy from the Perspective of People and Culture: The North American Context,” in A. M. Rugman (ed.), Research in Global Strategic Management: International Business Research for the Twenty-First Century: Canada’s New Research Agenda, vol. 1, (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990), 179–205. (3) Phases I–III are based on R. Vernon, “International Investment and International Trade Product Cycle,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (May 1966): 87.

Phase I Domestic

Phase II International

Phase III Multinational

Phase IV Global

Product/service

Market

Price

Strategy

Domestic

Muitidomestic

Multinational

Global

Marginal

Important

Extremely important

Dominant

New, unique

More standardized

Mass-customized

Technology

Product engineering emphasized Proprietary

Process engineering emphasized Shared

Completely standardized (commodity) Engineering not emphasized Widely shared

R&D/sales Profit margin

High High

Decreasing Decreasing

Very low Very low

Competitors

None

Few

Many

Market Production location Exports

Small, domestic Domestic

Large, multinational Multinational, least cost Large, saturated

Functional divisions Centralized

Large, muitidomestic Domestic and primary markets Growing, high potential Functional with international division Decentralized

Multinational line of business Centralized

Cultural sensitivity With whom

Marginally important No one

Very important Clients

Somewhat important Employees

Level Strategic assumption

No one “One way”/ “one best way”

Workers and clients “Many good ways”

Managers “One leastcost way”

Primary orientation Competitive strategy Importance of world business Product/service

Structure

None

Product and process engineering Instantly and extensively shared Very high High, yet immediately decreasing Significant (few or many) Largest, global Global, least cost Imports and exports Global alliances Coordinated, decentralized Critically important Employees and clients Executives “Many good ways” simultaneously

cultures; compares organizational behavior across countries and cultures; and attempts to understand and improve the interaction and behavior of co-workers, clients, suppliers, and alliance partners from different countries and cultures.14 Cross-cultural management attempts to extend the study of domestic management to encompass global and multicultural considerations. The global manager is a person who views markets, production, service, and opportunities globally and who seeks higher profits for the firm on a global basis. The truly global manager is at home anywhere in the world. He or she is considered open to national ideas and free of prejudices or attachments to one community, country, or culture. The global manager is aware of and understands the major cultural differences from

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FIGURE 3.1 Managerial Skills for the Global Marketplace

Global strategic skills

Transfer of knowledge skills

Effective Global Managers Need

Communication skills

Team building skills

Organization skills

country to country. This awareness and understanding is acquired by observation, learning, participation, and involvement with people from many different countries and cultures. Like those in other types of managerial positions, global managers can experience tension when their international work and extensive travel schedules impinge on their personal lives.15 Leaders of global enterprises in such emerging markets as the BRIC countries (i.e., Brazil, Russia, India, and China) will need to possess local sensitivity and global knowledge. At times, senior management positions in emerging countries are staffed with nationals from the company’s home country.16 Do these home-country senior managers have the necessary skills, both those mentioned earlier and others, to help their firms achieve and sustain competitive advantage? In addition to having language and extensive host-country and global networking skills,17 global leaders will need to master many other skills, as illustrated in Figure 3.1. Providing acceptable products to the gigantic emerging BRIC country markets requires making timely and relevant decisions. For example, consumers in China appear to be very concerned about the price–performance equation. Philips Electronics introduced a combination video-CD player in China when there was no market for this product in the United States or Europe. More than 15 million units have been sold because the Chinese quickly adopted a positive view of the two players (video and CD) for one bargain price. Companies have learned that consumers in India are different from those in the West. Single-service packets, or sachets, are very popular in India. They allow consumers in India to buy only what they need, try out the products, and save their money. Products as varied as shampoos, pickles, cough syrup, and laundry detergents are sold in sachets in India, and it is estimated that they make up 20 to 30 percent of the total sold in their categories.18

Global Strategic Skills Managers operating in a globally shifting work environment will need a working knowledge of international relationships and foreign affairs, including global financial markets, international law, and exchange rate movements. Understanding global economies of scale, work ethics of employees, and host government policies and procedures will be required to formulate feasible, fair, legal, and effective strategies.19 Levitt’s view of standardized world markets was presented earlier. Although the global market view is widely publicized, there is a need to be sensitive to local customs, preferences,

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and idiosyncrasies.20 A few examples illustrate the strategic importance of local preferences and global standardization: • Procter & Gamble’s liquid detergent failed in Europe when it was introduced because European washing machines were not equipped for liquid detergent. Modifications to the detergent were made and sales subsequently improved. • Kellogg’s Corn Flakes were eaten primarily as a snack when introduced in Brazil. With educational advertising, Corn Flakes gained acceptance as a breakfast food. • L’Oréal markets its hair care and cosmetic products in more than 100 countries. It has adopted and implemented a strategy to produce local products adapted to local markets, while it reaps world economies of scale in research and development, raw materials sourcing, and productivity balancing. • Wyeth Pharmaceuticals and Hitachi Data Systems develop training programs from their headquarters’ locations but then send the programs to worldwide experts so that the training programs can be tailored to fit the needs and requirements of different local markets.21 For example, Wyeth may develop a new training program that describes a new prescription drug, but local affiliates would need to review the program to make sure that local issues like price controls, packaging and labeling requirements, and reimbursement policies are “localized” to fit that particular market. • Nestlé has tailored products to what the Chinese consumer wants and needs—instant noodles, seasonings for Chinese cuisine, mineral water, and a popular live-lactobacillus health drink.22 These five examples suggest that global success requires striking a balance between capitalizing on resources and needs within a nation and capturing a vision of a globalizing world. Local requirements such as customer satisfaction must be met. But local managers also will need to think in global terms so that economies of scale and competition can be addressed.

Team-Building Skills The increased complexity of global operations will require more use of work teams, including culturally diverse groups. The need for global teamwork is obvious when considering how accounting and auditing are conducted in various parts of the world. In one country, financial statements are used to reflect the economic conditions of a firm, and the audit is an accuracy check of the condition. In another country, the audit is conducted to make sure that legal requirements are met. Imagine how the audit could be interpreted in different countries and why teamwork is needed to ensure a clear understanding of its use. In operations management, it is important to develop systems, processes, and procedures across subsidiaries. Many companies have subsidiaries in different countries. Determining if the system that is so valuable in one country can be applied or modified to fit another country requires teamwork. Teams should not ignore or minimize either cultural differences or the difficulty faced in trying to develop and manage multicultural teams.23 In the context of a global organization, it becomes even more critical that team members become aware of their own stereotypes without allowing them to limit their expectations and actions. There is also an urgent need for teams to avoid cultural dominance (disproportionate power vested in members of one culture over those from other cultures). Managers should distribute power according to each member’s ability to do the task, not according to some preconceived notion of relative cultural superiority.

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Organization Skills The management philosophy of North America for the vast majority of the 20th century reflected Douglas McGregor’s Theory X. Theory X held that workers are irresponsible and unwilling to work and must be persuaded to perform their obligations to their employers. Thus, the Theory X–based management approach to organization is to structure the job, closely supervise, and reward good performance and punish poor performance. This approach encourages a carrot-and-stick, hierarchically controlled approach to management. The emphasis is on short-term compliance and profitability. Is this really the way U.S. workers are? Certainly some American workers and workers in other countries fit the Theory X mold perfectly. However, others respond better to a Theory Y approach, the opposite of Theory X. Theory Y managers create an environment that encourages self-control and the willingness to take responsibility. They assume that most employees want to work and do not have to be coerced to do a good job. The employees who react positively to this style want autonomy, recognition, and an opportunity to display their skills, creativity, and commitment. In addition to cultural diversity, managers must consider individual differences when organizing firms, units, and jobs. Minimum requirements for managers operating in a globally shifting world would include • Creativity and inventiveness in designing organizations and jobs. • High tolerance for ambiguity and cultural differences. • Ability to coordinate finance, marketing, operations management, and human resource interdependencies.

Communication Skills In the global environment, managers will need to be able to communicate with diverse groups of people. The communication task would be easier if managers possessed multilingual skills and high levels of cross-cultural awareness and sensitivity.24 Within the global business environment, strategy formulation, decision making, motivating, team building, organization and job design, leading, and negotiating are all based on managers’ ability to communicate with each other and with subordinates. Achieving effective communication in a culturally homogenous setting is extremely difficult. However, it is much more challenging and difficult when a variety of nationalities, languages, and cultures are represented within the same organization.25 Cross-cultural communication often results in misunderstanding caused by misperception, misinterpretation, and misevaluation. When the sender of a text message, e-mail, report, or policy comes from one culture and the receiver comes from another, the chances of an accurate transmission of a message may be quite low. People often understand and interpret the message differently. As the OB at Work feature illustrates, these same communication issues can occur when working in virtual teams. Continually working to improve communication skills that work with culturally diverse employees will become mandatory. It will not be easy, but awareness of the difficulty of cross-cultural communication is a starting point.26

Transfer of Knowledge Skills The increased competitiveness throughout the world has placed a special emphasis on technological advances for product and process innovations. This emphasis has increased the need to transfer knowledge. Learning about a practice, technique, or approach in one country that can be transferred elsewhere is a skill that managers can apply on a regular

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Communicating in Global Virtual Teams

Used by many different types of organizations such as PricewaterhouseCoopers, Whirlpool, and IBM, global virtual teams are cross-functional teams that operate across time, space, organizational boundaries, and cultures whose members communicate mainly through electronic technologies (texting, e-mail, videoconferencing, voice-mail, etc.). With infrequent face-to-face contact, these teams are faced with the challenge of building and maintaining trust as they work toward accomplishing the team’s objectives and goals. In particular, miscommunication between team members from diverse cultures and backgrounds can create a roadblock to the development of trust and, ultimately, effective team functioning. Internationally savvy companies can manage this potential problem by providing each member of their virtual teams with cross-cultural training. The first part of cross-cultural training should focus on helping each team member understand his or her own cultural beliefs; verbal and nonverbal communication styles; and attitudes toward time, space, and work ethic. The rationale behind this “inward-looking” portion of the training is based on the research of Edward T. and Mildred R. Hall, anthropologists and pioneers in the field of culture and communication who wrote: Like people all over the world, Americans take their culture for granted. Indeed, it’s only in juxtaposition with other cultures that Americans begin to understand the influence of their own culture on their behavior.

The second part of the cross-cultural training for virtual team members should focus on learning how to work effectively with teammates from diverse cultures. Team members should learn how to interpret the verbal and nonverbal communication styles and cultural backgrounds of teammates and how to respond effectively to these unique cues.

benchmarking A standard of excellence or achievement against which a firm’s products or practices are measured or judged.

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For example, assume an American is placed on a global virtual team with individuals from Mexico. First, she would learn about her own cultural biases and communication style. Like many Americans, she prefers the following approaches to business: likes to tackle projects in monochronic fashion (i.e., one thing at a time); has a strong work ethic; favors direct, get-to-the point communication; and likes to keep work and home life separate. In contrast, her Mexican counterparts tend to be more polychronic (i.e., juggle many activities at once), work hard but spend more time with family and friends, prefer a less direct approach to communication (to allow ample time to build trust), and do not refrain from discussing family issues at work. Without some amount of cross-cultural training, these global virtual team members are going to have a difficult time communicating and building trust. Without such trust, the likelihood of the team performing at an optimal level will be greatly diminished. Sources: F. Siebdrat, M. Hoegl and H. Ernst, “How to Manage Virtual Teams,” MIT Sloan Management Review 50, no. 44 (2000): 63–68; Arvind Malhotra, Ann Majchrzak, and Benson Rosen, “Leading Virtual Teams,” The Academy of Management Perspectives 21, no. 1 (2007): 60–70; Douglas N. Ross, “Electronic Communications: Do Cultural Dimensions Matter?” American Business Review (June 2001): 75–81; Lee Gardenswartz and Anita Rowe, “Cross-Cultural Awareness,” HRMagazine, March 2001, pp. 139–42; Maurice Cleasby, “Managing Global Contact,” The British Journal of Administrative Management (March/April 2000): 4–12; Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Von Glinow, Organizational Behavior (Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2000); Sirkka L. Jarvenpaa and Dorothy E. Leidner, “Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams,” Organizational Science, (November/ December 1999): 791–815; and Edward T. Hall and Mildred R. Hall, Understanding Cultural Differences: Germans, French, and Americans (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 1987).

basis. Research on Capital One Financial suggests that the firm is competing globally by being flexible in the way it develops knowledge and how it applies this learning to other parts of the organization.27 Capital One Financial is embracing and leveraging knowledge as a way to increase its organizational effectiveness and competitive advantage. For years, Americans appeared to be oblivious and arrogant about using knowledge, information, or techniques initiated and practiced in other countries. The quality movement initiated in Japan by an American, W. Edwards Deming, after World War II, however, has changed the historic practice of ignoring what other countries and companies are doing. Benchmarking (analyzing how well a firm is doing compared with its competitors) is now a widespread practice around the world. Benchmarking attempts to answer the question: How are we doing in terms of strategy, quality of product, compensation program, job design, or teamwork?28 The Japanese have become experts at transferring knowledge. Although U.S. manufacturers were the first to design both monochrome and color televisions with transistors

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replacing slower-starting, shorter-lived electron tubes, they failed to implement the newer technology in their main product offering. By 1963, most Japanese sets exported to the United States were transistorized.29 On the other hand, although they had the capability earlier, U.S. producers did not move to complete transistorization of their monochrome sets until the late 1960s. The Japanese moved aggressively to solid-state color designs, first in their home market and then for export sales. Through learning and transfer of knowledge, they reduced the cost and improved the quality of TV sets. Today, such firms as Toshiba, Samsung, Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Sharp dominate the television manufacturing industry. How can managers develop such knowledge transfer skills? Although it doesn’t happen overnight, managers must learn how to identify best practices from domestic and overseasbased operations and then cross-pollination will improve organizational learning and, ultimately, the firm’s ability to achieve and sustain competitive advantage.

Culture National Culture national culture A set of values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms shared by a majority of the inhabitants of a country.

A national culture is a set of values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms shared by a majority of the inhabitants of a country. These become embodied in the laws and regulations of the society, as well as in the generally accepted norms of the country’s social system. People in a society learn what to notice and what not to notice, how to behave with each other, and how to handle responsibility, success, and failure. Most people are unaware of just how their culture has influenced their values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms. In most countries, a dominant national culture exists. However, even the most homogenous nations such as Japan contain subcultures with distinct characteristics. In the United States, powerful subcultures exist among many groups such as the Amish in Pennsylvania, the Cajuns in Louisiana, the Russian immigrants in Brighton Beach, New York, and the Pueblo Indians in Colorado. Another internally diverse nation, Brazil, has four major subcultures that have been shown to influence employee motivation and performance.30

History and Culture A country’s history provides insight into the development of a national culture. The U.S. culture has been shaped by such factors as Native Americans, pioneers, immigrants, its vast size, and abundancy of natural resources. The importance of the individual has been embedded in American history and folklore for centuries. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans, separating the United States from other continents, have created a tendency toward isolationism, a distrust of alliances, and a general lack of concern about political issues and policies in other countries. Americans have viewed their country as an island, separate from world conditions, problems, and politics. However, as the world became more interdependent and global media, communications, and transportation systems evolved, Americans were suddenly brought into contact with world problems such as hunger, disease, religious and ethnic conflicts, collapsing regimes, environmental degradation, and territorial disputes. National culture, subcultures, organizational culture, and history all influence behavior patterns of employees and the structures and processes found in organizations. The complexity of these patterns, structures, and processes requires careful analysis of many different variables. Despite such complexity, it is more important than ever for managers to attempt to unravel the dimensions that differentiate cultures. To motivate, lead, reward, structure, evaluate, and change behavior patterns, cultural variation must be studied and understood, particularly as it relates to performance, attendance, satisfaction, and ethical behavior.

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Cultural Dimensions There are many cultural dimensions that differentiate cultures. These cultural dimensions can influence behavior that can cause misunderstandings, disagreements, or conflicts.31

People’s Relationship to Nature In some countries, people attempt to control their natural environment. Americans and Canadians use manmade fertilizers and insecticides and technologically sophisticated equipment to improve crops and crop yield. Middle Easterners view events as fated to happen. When a flood or typhoon wipes out a village, it’s seen as God’s will. Far Eastern countries attempt to deal with nature on nature’s terms, to work in harmony with it. These three perspectives can be referred to as dominance, preordained, and harmony. In terms of organizational practices, these three perspectives could result in significantly different responses to poor performance. In a culture in which dominance is practiced, poor performance often results in sanctions or punishment. In a preordained cultural setting, poor performance is expected from some people. In a harmony-oriented culture, poor performance is likely to be met with recognition that it or the system in which it occurs must be improved.

Individualism versus Collectivism Americans place a high premium on the concept of individualism that describes the attitude of independence of a person who feels a large degree of freedom in his personal life and decisions. In American culture, individualism may motivate personal accomplishment or striving for self-fulfillment. This ingrained cultural factor may help to explain why many Americans are willing to change jobs and undertake geographic moves to pursue better career opportunities. On the other hand, China and Japan are categorized as communitarian societies.32 This term reflects a premise that the individual is an integral part of the whole and that the best chance of self-fulfillment is in the context of the nation’s goals. In an individualist society, it is generally accepted that each person’s highest priority is his own welfare and that of his family. As you might expect, the organization charts of firms in individualistic and collective societies differ. For example, in the United States, organization charts generally specify individual positions by title, job description, and job responsibilities and accountabilities.33 By contrast, organization charts in more group-oriented societies specify only sections, units, or departments. In group-oriented societies, assignments are provided in collective terms.

Time Orientation How is time perceived in a society? In many countries, employees are not accustomed to specific scheduling of work on an hourly basis. Time might be considered in terms of seasons or projects rather than in hours or workdays. Americans are meticulous about time—arriving at work, starting a meeting, beginning a sporting event. Being late for a meeting in northern Europe might be considered so disrespectful as to sever a business relationship. On the other hand, in parts of Latin America or Africa, being late is considered the norm. Americans tend to perceive time as a resource that is scarce and must be used wisely. This perception is captured in the old saying “time is money.” This view of time results in impatience about delays and attempting to fit as many activities as possible in the allotted time. In contrast, Eastern cultures view time as unlimited—an unending, inexhaustible resource. These differences in cultural views of time help to explain behavioral differences

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among people from different societies and the problems that may result when individuals with different orientations must interact.

Activity Orientation In cultures such as the United States, emphasis is placed on taking action. Accomplishing results and being recognized for one’s achievements are considered important. Managers in results-oriented cultures can motivate employees with promotions, merit-based raises, bonuses, and public recognition. In contrast to a results-oriented culture is a being culture. Being cultures emphasize enjoyment, living in a balanced way, enjoying the company of others, and being gratified for the moment. Employees in a being culture work for today, and when the job becomes troublesome or detracts from their enjoyment or interferes with their personal lives, they may quit. Understanding a culture’s activity orientation can provide insight into how employees view work and leisure, what is rewarding, and how they make decisions regarding the job. The results-oriented culture suggests that employees work to accomplish specific goals. The being-oriented culture finds employees working to enjoy life more fully.

Degree of Formality Americans do not ordinarily have a high regard for tradition, ceremony, and social rules. This informality has caused problems in business dealings and negotiations with people from other cultures. Latin Americans tend to enjoy and expect more pomp, circumstance, and ceremony than do most Americans. They tend to like public receptions, lavish meetings, and formal introductions. Americans faced with such events are often ill at ease, but they need to adjust in order to relate to and build trust with their Latino counterparts. In negotiations, Americans have acquired a reputation around the world for not taking the time to first establish a relationship. Some consider the American style as brash, arrogant, and distant. Americans want to get to the problem, solve it, and get on with business. However, negotiators from the Middle East, Latin America, and southern Europe find it customary to converse first about nonbusiness areas and topics. They believe that first some degree of rapport must be established between negotiators. In many countries, being blunt and informal is considered impolite and nonprofessional.

Language Languages present barriers to conducting global transactions. There are more than 3,000 languages spoken in the world. Language reflects what the society values in its culture. In some European and Asian countries, a number of languages are spoken. It is not correct, however, to conclude that when only one language exists, there will be only one culture. People in the United States and Australia speak English, but both countries have distinct cultures. Canada provides a unique case of how language can play a significant role in business. Canada’s heated controversy about the English and French languages has resulted in a joint government–industry committee producing typewriter and computer keyboards including accented French letters. Although the Canadian government is officially bilingual, English remains the dominant language. When communication in organizations involves translation from one language to another, the problems of meaning that arise become significant.34 It is difficult to translate from one language to another. Many managers have been surprised to find that nodding and yes responses from their Japanese counterparts did not mean the deal was accepted. The Japanese word for yes, hai, can also mean “I understand you,” or “I hear you.” And indeed, in some countries nodding the head means disagreement while shaking the head means agreement, exactly the opposite of what is seen in most cultures.

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Examples of language problems in business transactions have filled books.35 An example that illustrates barriers and misinterpretations involved a Monterey Park, California, medical office building with the numbers 941–943 emblazoned in three-foot characters. These are merely the building’s address. However, to the many Chinese-Americans who pass by or see the building, the numbers have a different meaning. In Mandarin or Cantonese dialects, they sound like a common Chinese saying: “Nine die; one lives.” To the Chinese, a medical building with such numbers suggests that the possibility for surviving is almost zero. In contrast, numbers can be used for good luck in business. An affiliate of Tang Frères, the largest Asian grocer in Paris, France, began offering a package of 14Chinese television channels for the monthly price of 8.88 euros, with “8” being one of the luckiest numbers in Chinese numerology.36 Chinese numerology is an amalgam of linguistic interpretation and age-old superstitions that have been brought to America.37

Religion In many cultures, religion is a dominant factor. As such, it can have a significant effect on how and what business is conducted, work schedules, and attitudes about ethics. Baptists honor Sunday as a day of rest, whereas in Islamic countries, it’s Friday, and in Israel, it’s Saturday. Islam also forbids “excessive” profit, which is considered exploitive. Islam preaches moderation and the sharing of wealth with others less fortunate. The concept of sharing wealth is manifested in one form called zakat, an annual tax of 2.5 percent collected from individuals and used for the benefit of the community. Banks in fundamentalist Islamic nations take equity in financing ventures, sharing profits as well as losses in the joint ventures. For example, Saudi Arabia’s Al Rajhi Bank, the largest Islamic bank in the world, doesn’t pay its depositors with a fixed interest rate (which is forbidden by Islamic law), but rather compensates by sharing some of the bank’s profits (or losses).38 Muslims are expected to pray facing the holy city of Mecca five times every day. Companies and managers must be aware of this religious ritual and might consider making adjustments that would permit employees to stop working during prayer time. Are American, British, or French managers aware of this ritual, and are they willing to provide their Muslim workers with the opportunity to practice it? In certain countries, religion may require its followers to dress in a particular manner that may conflict with organizations’ norms of appearance. These customs may have to be examined in terms of the individual, the religion, and the organization.

Cross-Cultural Research Findings An increasing body of research attempts to empirically investigate cultural variation and its effect on behavior and styles of management. The research continues to attempt to deal with cultural dimensions that are difficult to reliably and validly measure and that are difficult to translate in various languages. The studies presented in the section aren’t without their limitations and problems. However, they are major attempts to study cross-cultural issues.

Hofstede’s Research Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher, studied how cultures in countries are similar and different. He developed a survey instrument and administered it in IBM offices in 40 countries. A total of 116,000 survey instruments were returned and analyzed. The initial Hofstede survey data resulted in four dimensions being identified as explaining differences and similarities in cultures: uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, individualism– collectivism, and power distance.39

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Uncertainty Avoidance uncertainty avoidance A dimension identified by Hofstede that concerns the degree to which people are comfortable with ambiguous situations and with the inability to predict future events with accuracy.

The uncertainty avoidance dimension concerns the degree to which people are comfortable with ambiguous situations and with the inability to predict future events with accuracy. People with low uncertainty avoidance feel comfortable even though they are unsure about future events. Their attitudes are reflected in statements such as • Life is inherently uncertain and is most easily dealt with if taken one day at a time. • There should be as few rules as possible, and rules that cannot be kept should be changed or eliminated. In contrast, people with high uncertainty avoidance are uncomfortable when they are unsure what the future holds. Their attitudes are reflected by statements such as • The uncertainty inherent in life is threatening and must be fought continually. • Having a stable, secure life is extremely important. In cultures characterized by high uncertainty avoidance, behavior is motivated to some degree by fear of the unknown. People in such cultures attempt to reduce or avoid uncertainty by establishing rules, policies, and procedures. In Japan, for example, where lifetime employment has been somewhat common in large organizations, there is high uncertainty avoidance.

masculinity–femininity

Masculinity–Femininity

A dimension uncovered by Hofstede. High masculinity in a culture designates assertiveness, dominance, and independence. High femininity in a culture designates interdependence, compassion, and emotional opinions.

Hofstede used the term masculinity to designate the degree to which a culture emphasizes assertiveness, dominance, and independence. People in a culture that has a high masculinity orientation believe that • Sex roles in society should be clearly differentiated; men are intended to lead and women to follow. • Ambition and assertiveness provide the motivation behind behavior. Femininity describes a culture’s tendency to favor such values as interdependence, compassion, and emotional openness. People in a culture oriented toward femininity hold the following kinds of beliefs: • Sex roles in society should be fluid and flexible; sexual equality is desirable. • The quality of life is more important than personal performance and visible accomplishments. Work in cultures can be divided on the basis of a masculine–feminine dimension. In masculine cultures, men possess jobs that contain power, authority, and responsibility. In feminine-oriented cultures, the roles of teaching, caring for patients, and helping the less fortunate are valued. There would also be a more equality-based norm between the sexes. Neither men nor women would be expected to be better managers or leaders. Individual talents and skills, and not gender, are the focus for acceptance and recognition in the feminine-oriented national culture country.

individualism– collectivism A dimension uncovered by Hofstede. Individualism emphasizes pursuit of individual goals, needs, and success. Collectivism emphasizes group need, satisfaction, and performance.

Individualism–Collectivism The individualism–collectivism dimension refers to the tendency of a culture’s norms and values to emphasize satisfying individual needs or group needs. Individualism emphasizes pursuit of individual goals, needs, and success. It is assumed that if each person takes care of her or his personal needs, then the entire society will benefit. The individualism philosophy is that • I is more important than we. • Success is a personal achievement. People function most productively when working alone.

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In contrast, the collectivist perspective emphasizes group welfare and satisfaction. The individual is willing in a collectivist culture to make personal sacrifices to better the stature, performance, and satisfaction of the group. The collectivism philosophy is that • We is more important than I. • Every member of society should belong to a group that will secure members’ well-being in exchange for loyalty and occasional self-sacrifice. People’s attitudes and behaviors lie somewhere between these poles of individualism and collectivism. Individualists are committed to their own development, quality of life, and rewards. In collectivist national cultures, the group and its accomplishments take precedence over anything else. There is a strong sense of group commitment.

Power Distance A dimension determined by Hofstede. It refers to the degree to which members of a society accept differences in power and status among themselves.

Power distance refers to the degree to which members of a society accept differences in power and status among themselves. In national cultures that tolerate only a small degree of power distance, norms and values suggest that power differences should be minimal. Such cultures prefer participative management and worker involvement in decision making. Individuals in such cultures believe that • Superiors should be readily accessible to subordinates. • Using power is neither inherently good nor inherently evil; whether power is good or evil depends on the purposes for and consequences of its use. On the other hand, in national cultures characterized by a large degree of power distance, norms and values based on hierarchical distribution predominate. People in these cultures use authority and power to coordinate individual work and behavior. Individuals in large power distance cultures believe that • Power holders are entitled to special rights and privileges. • Superiors and subordinates should consider each other to be different kinds of people. Authoritarian manager styles are more likely to exist in a high power distance culture than in a low power distance culture. Decentralization, participation, and worker involvement are more likely to exist in a low power distance culture than in a high power distance culture. Figures 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 show how select countries cluster on the basis of Hofstede’s proposed cultural differences. As shown in Figure 3.2, the Scandinavian countries Denmark and Norway are feminine (i.e., low on masculinity), while Germanic countries Germany FIGURE 3.2 Country Classifications: Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, (3rd rev ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

Uncertainty Avoidance

Masculinity

power distance

High

Low

High

Germany Austria

Great Britain United States

Low

Spain France

Denmark Norway

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FIGURE 3.3 Country Classifications: Uncertainty Avoidance and Power Distance Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, (3rd rev ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

Uncertainty Avoidance

Power Distance

Part One

High

Low

High

South Korea Brazil

India Singapore

Low

Germany Austria

Great Britain United States

and Austria are highly masculine. In Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland, both men and women are expected to have jobs outside the home and to help with household and child-rearing activities within the home. Quality of life is an important goal in feminine cultures. In terms of uncertainty avoidance, Spain and France, which are Latin European countries, use rules and bureaucratic policies to try to control uncertainty in everyday life and unpredictable future events. The United States and Great Britain are relatively less bureaucratic and tend to be more comfortable with uncertain situations. Figure 3.3 illustrates that a country such as Great Britain that is low on power distance and uncertainty avoidance has very little hierarchy and much interaction among people. Employees in high power distance and low uncertainty avoidance cultures such as India view their organizations as families. Employees in countries such as South Korea and Brazil tend to consider their organizations as pyramids of people. Roles and procedures in countries with low power distance and high uncertainty avoidance, such as Germany, tend to work in highly predictable settings. Figure 3.4 shows that the United States rates low on power distance. Japan and India rate high on power distance and low on individualism. In these countries, bypassing or arguing with a superior would be considered insubordination.

FIGURE 3.4 Country Classifications: Individualism and Power Distance Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, (3rd rev ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

Individualism

Power Distance

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High

Low

High

France Belgium

India Japan

Low

United States Great Britain

Costa Rica

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TABLE 3.2 Scores on Four Hofstede Dimensions Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, (3rd rev ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

National Culture Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Denmark Finland France Germany Great Britain Greece Hong Kong India Iran Ireland Israel Italy Japan Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Pakistan Peru Philippines Portugal Singapore South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey United States Venezuela Yugoslavia

Managing Globally 71

Uncertainty Avoidance

Masculinity– Femininity

Individualism– Collectivism

Power Distance

86 51 70 94 76 48 86 80 23 59 86 65 35 112 29 40 59 35 81 75 92 82 53 49 50 70 87 44 104 8 49 86 29 58 69 64 85 46 76 88

56 61 79 54 49 52 28 64 16 26 43 66 66 57 57 56 43 68 47 70 95 69 14 58 8 50 42 64 31 48 63 42 5 70 45 34 45 62 73 21

46 90 55 75 38 80 23 13 74 63 71 67 89 35 25 48 41 70 54 76 46 30 80 79 69 14 16 32 27 20 65 51 71 68 17 20 37 91 12 27

49 36 11 65 69 39 63 67 18 33 68 35 35 60 68 77 58 28 13 50 54 81 38 22 31 55 64 94 63 74 49 57 31 34 58 64 66 40 81 76

Note: Larger numbers signify greater amounts of uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, individualism, and power distance.

Table 3.2 presents scores for the 40 initial countries studied by Hofstede on each of the four dimensions. Larger numbers indicate greater amounts of uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, individualism, and power distance. Note that the United States has the highest individualism score (91), a moderate masculinity score (62), a low uncertainty avoidance score (46), and a low power distance score (40). In addition to Hofstede, other researchers have examined attitude information and concluded that eight basic clusters of nations exist.40 The attitudes (work goals, needs, and values) of each nation in a cluster were more similar to each other than to attitudes found

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in other clusters. The United States is found in the Anglo cluster, which includes the English-speaking nations of Canada, New Zealand, Ireland, Australia, the United Kingdom, and South Africa. Countries found in the other clusters include: Germanic: Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Nordic: Finland, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Arab: Bahrain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman, and Saudi Arabia. Near Eastern: Turkey, Iran, and Greece. Far Eastern: Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, South Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, and Taiwan. • Latin American: Argentina, Venezuela, Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Colombia. • Latin European: France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. • • • • •

Four nations—Brazil, Japan, India, and Israel—did not fit into any of the eight country clusters and are considered independent cultures.

Hofstede-Inspired Research

long-term orientation A cultural dimension that refers to the degree to which a given culture values persistence, thrift (savings), having a sense of shame, and ordering relationships by status.

short-term orientation A cultural dimension that refers to the degree to which a culture values respect for tradition, the exchange of favors and gifts, protecting “face” (i.e., avoiding shame), and personal steadiness and stability

Informed by Hofstede’s research, Bond and Chinese scholars developed a Chinese Value Survey that was administered to Chinese students who were living in 22 countries.41 The results suggested a fifth dimension along which a culture could be classified: long-term orientation. This fifth dimension has also been referred to as Confucian Dynamism. Basically, it measures the degree to which a culture values persistence and thrift (savings), has a sense of shame, and orders relationships by status.42 It has been suggested that cultures with a long-term orientation are more likely to experience stronger economic growth and entrepreneurial activity. China is a country with a long-term orientation. In contrast, cultures that display a short-term orientation value respect for tradition, the exchange of favors and gifts, protecting “face” (i.e., avoiding shame), and personal steadiness and stability.43 The Philippines is an example of a country with a short-term time orientation. Hofstede has proposed that not only management practices but also management theories are constrained by the national cultural environment in which they were created.44 He claims that management as an activity and a class of people is an American invention. In the United States, the manager is a culture hero. However, other cultures have different views of management and managers. In Germany, the engineer rather than the manager is the hero. An effective apprenticeship program both on the factory floor and in the office is in place. Germans expect their boss, or Meister, to assign their tasks and to be a technical expert. They do not, however, rely on a manager, American style, to motivate them. The manager in its U.S. version does not exist in Japan. In the United States, the core of the enterprise is the managerial class. In Japan, the core consists of a permanent worker group. University graduates in Japan first join the permanent worker group and subsequently fill various positions. Japanese workers are to a large extent controlled by their peer group rather than by their manager. Hofstede believes that history and cultural characteristics explain clearly why American managers behave as they do in terms of managing employees, structuring of organization, designing jobs, making decisions, and engaging in communications.45 Nothing is inherently wrong or right in American managerial behavior, just as nothing is necessarily good or bad about Chinese, German, Mexican, or Nigerian managerial behavior. Each managerial or cadre group has its own peculiar idiosyncrasies. A study of American and Japanese managers examined the influence of national culture on budget control practices in manufacturing firms. Budget control practices included communication and coordination processes used in budget planning, the time horizon used, the rules and procedures followed, the amount of budget slack built into the system,

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Managing Globally 73

the degree of managerial control over the budget, and the budget performance evaluation period.46 Because Japan has been identified as a highly collectivist nation and the United States has been found to be very individualistic, it was proposed that differences in budgetary control would be found. As hypothesized, U.S. companies, compared with Japanese companies, tend to use communication and coordination more widely, build more budget slack into considerations, and use a short-term performance evaluation. The findings are compatible with the view that the United States practices more hierarchically oriented management and uses a shorter-term perspective for evaluation and review.

Critiquing Hofstede The original Hofstede research was conducted in only one organization, IBM, which limits its generalizability. In addition, questions are still raised about the validity and reliability of the measures used by Hofstede. Is he accurately measuring cultural dimensions? Are these the most important cultural dimensions? Can a survey measure cultural dimensions? Since culture is such a subtle characteristic, can it be measured at all? These are questions raised about any survey-based research.47 Cultural tendencies can lead to respondents’ minimization or exaggeration of their feelings on a rating scale.48 There is also the issue of subcultural influences on respondents. If Canadians completed the survey, wouldn’t there be differences in responses in British Columbia as compared to Quebec? Are mean values, averaged across all subjects, accurate representations of a national culture? There is also the problem of whether four or five dimensions can conceivably explain a national culture.49 What dimensions are missing, if any? Explaining such a complex phenomenon as culture is not an easy task. Despite these criticisms and limitations, Hofstede’s research and the studies that it has stimulated have called attention to national culture and its possible impact on behavior and style. He has finally introduced into the organizational sciences a word of caution about generalizing from one setting and one country to other settings and other countries. Hofstede has increased interest in conducting more internationally relevant organizational science, research, and applications.

The GLOBE Project The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project, conceived by Robert House of the University of Pennsylvania, is a large international research project involving 150 researchers who have collected data from more than 17,000 managers from 62 different cultures.50 One of the goals of this large-scale study is to identify and understand managers’ perceptions of cultural practices and values in their respective countries. In other words, the research aims at understanding which cultural variables influence leaders and organizational cultures in different countries.51 Most of the researchers involved in the project are from the host countries in which data are collected, so they are experts in the culture, language, and so forth. Also, the GLOBE project is ongoing in that researchers continue to collect data and publish interesting research findings. As can be seen in Table 3.3, the GLOBE project classified cultures based on their scores on the following nine cultural dimensions:52 1. Uncertainty avoidance: The degree to which members of a society or organization use rules, regulations, and social norms to avoid uncertainty or unpredictable future events. 2. Power distance: The extent to which a society accepts unequal distribution of power. 3. Societal collectivism: The extent to which an organization encourages and rewards group outcomes as opposed to employees pursuing individual goals. 4. In-group collectivism: This captures the degree to which individuals express loyalty, pride, and cohesiveness in their organizations and families.

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TABLE 3.3 Cultural Comparisons of Three Country Clusters from the GLOBE Project Source: Based on Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, (3rd rev ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010).

Cultural Dimensions

Anglo Cluster1

Confucian Cluster 2

Latin European Cluster 3

Power distance In-group collectivism Institutional collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Future orientation Gender egalitarianism Assertiveness Humane orientation Performance orientation

Medium-high Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium-Low Medium Medium Medium

High High Medium-high Medium Medium Medium-low Medium Medium Medium-high

High Medium-high Medium Medium Medium Medium-low Medium Medium Medium

1

Anglo cluster: Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, United States, and United Kingdom. Confucian cluster: China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. 3 Latin European cluster: France, Switzerland, Israel, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. 2

5. Gender egalitarianism: The extent to which an organization avoids gender discrimination and role inequalities. 6. Assertiveness: The degree to which members of organizations are aggressive and confrontational in social relationships. 7. Future orientation: The extent to which members of a society plan, invest in the future, and delay immediate gratification. 8. Performance orientation: The degree to which individuals in a society are rewarded for performance improvement and excellence. 9. Humane orientation: The degree to which individuals in an organization are rewarded for being friendly, altruistic, fair, caring, and kind to others. Table 3.3 compares the scores of three clusters of countries—Anglo, Confucian, and Latin European—on the nine cultural values in the GLOBE project. This gives future expatriates who are not familiar with the cultures from these clusters a research-based snapshot of how the people from that culture will behave. The GLOBE project, although still a work in progress, is a comprehensive and valid resource for improving our understanding of the similarities and differences between cultures around the world. Based on their studies and review of the literature, scholars like Hofstede and House believe that managers’ national origin significantly affects their views and style of managing. Just as there’s an American bias in some managerial approaches, there’s an Indian bias in other practices. No nation, group of managers, or set of researchers is perfectly free of any bias or ethnocentric tendencies. Cross-cultural understanding will come about only if managers and researchers are willing to increase their global perspectives and knowledge bases about diverse groups of employees. Global approaches to managing behavior, structure, and processes will eventually become a top priority around the world. The era of domestically bound approaches to managing what occurs in organizations is ending.

Cross-Cultural Transitions multinational corporation A firm with operations in different nations with each viewed as a relatively separate enterprise.

Although the terms are often treated as the same, Table 3.1 pointed out important distinctions between a multinational corporation and a global corporation. A multinational corporation (MNC) might have operations in different nations, but each operation is viewed as a relatively separate enterprise. Key human resources are usually sent out from the company’s home offices, and most decision making remains at corporate headquarters. Thus, although the MNC is largely staffed by people from the nation in which a particular facility

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global corporation An enterprise structured so that national boundaries become blurred. The best people are hired irrespective of national origin.

Managing Globally 75

is found, managers from the corporation’s home country retain most authority.53 The multinational corporation does not yet see its potential market as the world. Rather, it views each of its foreign operations as a specialized market for a particular product. In other words, each foreign subsidiary concentrates its efforts on the nation in which it is located. An example of an organization in the multinational stage of internationalization would be Baker & McKenzie, a large legal services firm headquartered in Chicago. This firm has 3,900 local lawyers in 67 offices worldwide, including in Beijing, Abu Dhabi, Milan, and São Paulo. Due to the fact that the practice of law varies considerably from one country to the next, each country’s law office will function as a relatively autonomous enterprise. In contrast to an MNC, the global corporation (GC) is structured so that national boundaries disappear and it hires the best people for jobs irrespective of their national origin. The global corporation sees the world as its labor source as well as its marketplace. Thus, the global corporation will locate an operation wherever it can accomplish its goals in the most cost-effective way.54 The true global corporation also believes in a world market for essentially similar products. Moreover, the national affiliation of an employee becomes rather unimportant. For example, Mars Inc. Spain has had an English general manager, a French finance manager, and a Swiss human resources manager.55

Human Resources for International Assignments Generally speaking, three sources provide employees for an international assignment. For key managerial and technical positions, all three sources of workers are frequently used in global organizations. Which source is used the most depends, however, on the perspective of the company. The organization might choose to hire host-country nationals Workers from the local population where an operation is located.

parent-country nationals Individuals sent from the country in which the firm is headquartered. Often called expatriates.

third-country nationals Employees from a country other than where the parent company is headquartered or where the operation is located.

• Host-country nationals, who are workers from the local population. A worker from Ireland employed by a U.S. firm operating in Dublin would be considered a hostcountry national. Sometimes they are referred to as local nationals. • Parent-country nationals, who are sent from the country in which the organization is headquartered. These persons are usually referred to as expatriates. A U.S. manager on assignment in Ireland is an expatriate or parent-country national. • Third-country nationals, who are from a country other than where the parent organization’s headquarters or operations are located. If the U.S. firm employed a manager from Canada at facilities in Ireland, she would be considered a third-country national. The tendency to be ethnocentric (a belief that your nation’s cultural values and customs are superior to all others) is strong for new and even for many well-established foreign organizations conducting business in the United States. There is an assumption that most executive-level positions in Japanese-owned businesses in the United States are occupied by Japanese nationals. Only about 31 percent of the senior management positions in such firms are occupied by U.S. managers. More commonly, local nationals are used for specific functions such as liaison, but Japanese organizations have a reputation among some people for showing little regard for these persons’ career development. (See the end-of-chapter case.) In contrast, some researchers suggest that foreign companies in Japan hire local Japanese managers for nearly 80 percent of their management needs.56

The Expatriate Manager expatriate manager A manager from the firm’s home nation who’s on an overseas assignment.

Perhaps one of the most important tasks for the multinational or global corporation is managing the expatriate adjustment process. An expatriate manager is a manager from the corporation’s home nation who is on a foreign assignment. The focus for the company will therefore be on the selection, training, appraisal, and compensation of the expatriate. Significant efforts will also be placed on career management as it relates to the expatriate’s

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

Acquire International Experience the “Easy Way”

In order to get international experience twenty or thirty years ago, most managers would have to uproot their families and relocate to another country for several years. These long-term expatriates would immerse themselves in the host country culture and language, but they ran the risk that they, their spouse or partner, and their family would not adjust to living in the host culture (and would have to return home early). Similarly, the expatriate took a career-related risk by being “out of sight, out of mind” from key decision makers back in the home or corporate office. A natural outgrowth of these risks was the increase in the number of candidates turning down these long-term international assignments. However, there is considerable evidence that many organizations value managers with international skills and experience. So, how can a manager acquire international experience without taking the risks associated with long-term international assignments? Managers who want to build some international skills (in a short period) should consider taking traveling international assignments (IAs). Traveling IAs come in many forms, but a typical traveling IA would not require relocation; rather, it would consist of a manager being given both domestic and international job responsibilities. The manager would be expected to travel for a few days or weeks at a time to one or more international locations to visit customers, suppliers, subsidiary employees, alliance partners, and other host country stakeholders. His job could include negotiating joint ventures, resolving export issues, securing new clients, and so forth. In contrast to longterm expatriates, the manager in a traveling IA would still have to perform some domestic job responsibilities in addition to these international duties. For example, a manager from Apple who is helping to coordinate the launch of the iPad might be responsible for marketing activities in the southwestern United States while also covering Mexico, Brazil, and Chile. She would

have to split her time across these four countries. These traveling IAs are a great way to rack up some international experience and language skills without have to relocate overseas. By being based out of the home country, managers in traveling IAs can stay in the loop with regard to changes in home office politics and other career-related issues. Here’s how to increase your chances of being chosen for a traveling IA: 1. Get on the record. Discuss your interest in taking a traveling IA with your supervisor and the human resources department. If the organization has a skills and interests database, be sure to update your profile. 2. Be persistent. You’ll need to remind your supervisor periodically of your interest in gaining international skills. These traveling IAs tend to be coveted positions, so you will need to be patient but proactive in getting one. 3. Volunteer. If you hear that an international client or supplier (or other stakeholder) will be visiting the United States or the firm needs someone to attend a trade show overseas, volunteer to help out. Although these activities may not fit with your regular 9 to 5 p.m. job responsibilities, you will demonstrate that you’re committed to gaining international skills. This “hustle” will get you noticed when that next traveling IA position becomes available. 4. Study a foreign language. Saying that you’re interested in a traveling IA is one thing, demonstrating it is another. If you want an IA that would allow you to travel to China, start studying Mandarin; for most of Latin America, study Spanish; and so forth. You won’t become fluent overnight, but you will certainly send a strong message to your manager and others at the organization that you’re serious about working internationally.

return to headquarters. The OB and Your Career feature provides some suggestions on how an individual can acquire international experience without taking a long-term expatriate assignment. Figure 3.5 lists the factors that seem to be most commonly associated with expatriate success and failure. Clearly, selection for expatriate assignments is a complex, sensitive task. Many factors related to a successful expatriate assignment are difficult to measure, and managers’ success in domestic operations may have very little to do with their success overseas.57 One major reason that expatriate failure rates are so high for many companies is that these companies believe that a manager’s domestic performance will always be related to her overseas performance. As a result, they frequently overemphasize technical competency and disregard more important factors when selecting the expatriate.58 As Figure 3.5 shows, the real keys to a successful expatriate choice are finding managers who are culturally flexible and adaptable, who have supportive family situations,

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FIGURE 3.5

Managing Globally 77

Characteristics of the expatriate manager

Factors in Expatriate Managers’ Success and Failure

Strong technical skills Good language skills Strong desire to work overseas Specific knowledge of overseas culture Well-adjusted family situation Complete support of spouse Behavioral flexibility Adaptability and open-mindedness Good relational ability Good stress management skills

High probability for success

Uncertain technical competency Weak language skills Unsure about going overseas Lack of knowledge of host culture Family problems Low spouse support Behavioral rigidity Unadaptability—closed to new ideas Poor relational ability Weak stress management skills

Low probability for success

and who are motivated to accept the overseas assignment. Other factors such as cultural familiarity and language fluency are also apparently more important than technical competency. Staffing an international joint venture with expatriates can be challenging since the partners in the venture might disagree about the necessary qualifications for a manager. For example, a Japanese partner might be looking for a manager who is a real team player, whereas a U.S. partner might be seeking a highly aggressive self-starter for the same position. Such disagreements are one reason that joint ventures using one partner’s management philosophies seem to work better than shared systems.59 Motivation to accept an overseas assignment is also a factor in the expatriate’s success. Without a strong commitment to completing the assignment, the expatriate’s chances of success are small. The organization can help create this motivation in several ways. Compensation programs that are attractive to the expatriate can help. Perhaps more important, however, is creating a system where the overseas assignment is beneficial to the expatriate’s long-term career objectives. For example, global assignments are an expected part of employees’ career progression at companies like Procter & Gamble.60 One of expatriates’ most commonly mentioned concerns is that their position in the home offices may be jeopardized if they are away too long. That is, many expatriates believe that accepting a lengthy overseas assignment will derail any successful career path they had established in domestic operations.61 Recent research suggests that factors such as the expatriate’s (and organizational leader’s) previous experiences and the organization’s career development practices can have a positive outcome on the expatriate’s career within the organization.62 For example, if the expatriate has already had a successful posting overseas, the CEO of the firm has previous international experience, and the organization provides repatriation adjustment assistance, then the returning expatriate is more likely to have a career success within the firm. The role of the expatriate’s family shouldn’t be underestimated when deciding about overseas assignments.63 Research indicates that a dissatisfied spouse can significantly affect the expatriate’s performance. Some evidence even suggests that a spouse’s inability to adjust to the overseas assignment is the single most common factor in expatriate failures.64 For an expatriate with children, worries over schooling and leisure activities can add to the stress associated with the assignment. Eventually, if these worries aren’t resolved, the assignment might end with the expatriate’s early return to her parent country.

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Because the family can be such an important factor in expatriate manager failures, the temptation for many companies may be to send only single managers. Although this practice might eliminate one problem, it could easily create many others. For example, it’s likely that a greater proportion of men than women are single in certain occupational groups. If a company selects only single persons for desirable overseas assignments, it might unintentionally discriminate against women.

Culture Shock and the Expatriate Manager

culture shock cycle A three-phase cycle (fascination and interest, frustration and confusion, and adaptation) that most individuals sent to another culture experience.

FIGURE 3.6 The Culture Shock Cycle

A trip to a foreign culture can cause expatriate managers and their families to go through a predictable series of reactions to their unfamiliar surroundings. Figure 3.6 illustrates the culture shock cycle.65 First, there is a period of fascination during which all of the different aspects of the culture are viewed with interest and curiosity. This first reaction to a new culture is generally a positive experience. Next, however, comes a period known as culture shock. Culture shock refers to the frustration and confusion that result from being constantly subjected to strange and unfamiliar cues about what to do and how to get it done.66 Notice from the exhibit that culture shock doesn’t typically occur during the earliest days of a trip overseas. Thus, while many expatriate managers’ assignments begin very positively, their experiences often turn negative soon after.67 The successful expatriate must cope effectively with culture shock. It’s a period in which the manager may miss the familiar surroundings of the home office. Simple, daily events can become sources of stress and dissatisfaction. For example, being denied access to a favorite snack food or leisure activity because it’s unavailable in the host country may not seem important, but to the expatriate on a lengthy overseas assignment, it can become extremely frustrating. What may be even more difficult to deal with is active resentment of the expatriate by host country nationals, such as that which may be faced by AfricanAmerican managers taking positions in South Africa.68 Negative feelings such as this resulting from the perception that the expatriate is taking away a job that could be held by a native of the country may be overt or subtle but can influence many aspects of an expatriate’s tour of duty. The final stage of coping with a new culture is an adaptation stage. During this stage, the expatriate has made reasonable adjustments to the new culture and is able to deal effectively with it. Although this stage seldom returns the expatriate to the heights of excitement that

High

Attitude about overseas assignment and environment

Low 1

2

3

4

5

6

Months in foreign culture Phase I (Fascination)

Phase II (Frustration)

Phase III (Adaptation)

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he first experienced, a successful transition to a new culture does return the expatriate to manageable levels of a “normal” lifestyle.

Training the Expatriate Manager Once the groundwork for a successful overseas assignment has been laid by choosing expatriates with good chances of succeeding, the next step toward ensuring success is for the organization to properly train and prepare these managers for their upcoming assignments. As with selection, expatriate manager training programs need to focus on issues that are not typically dealt with in domestic training programs. For example, members of global virtual teams not only have to work well together but also need to navigate a variety of unknown and unpredictable issues (e.g., how to resolve a particular Brazilian client’s needs in a timely manner). Training for global virtual team members may focus more on dealing with the unknown as opposed to learning facts and predetermined information about cultures.69 Intercultural training has a positive effect on expatriate adjustment and performance while on an overseas assignment.70 There are several different kinds of training to choose from, including “documentary” and “interpersonal” training. Documentary training involves relatively passive learning about another culture and its business practices; interpersonal approaches focus on intercultural role playing and self-awareness exercises. Both can be valuable forms of preparation for the expatriate manager.71 According to Tung,72 two primary factors determine how much and what kind of training expatriate managers should receive. These are the level of contact with the host culture that the expatriate will encounter and the degree of dissimilarity between the home and host cultures. As either of these increases, the expatriate will require more in-depth training for the overseas assignment. Figure 3.7 shows the content and structure of an integrated expatriate manager training program. Its three phases have specific objectives for helping the expatriate to be successful. Before discussing the specific elements of each phase of expatriate manager training, it’s important to describe some scenarios where such training should be more or less intensive. Under those situations where a U.S. expatriate manager is being assigned for two to three years to such dissimilar cultures as those found in Saudi Arabia, China, India, and Brazil, then managers should receive all three phases of cross-cultural training. Moreover, it is recommended that the employing organization provide the manager’s spouse/partner and children with language and cultural orientation training. While overseas, it is extremely important that the manager’s family adjust to the host culture. A well-adjusted family is important to the overall success of the expatriate manager. On the other hand, if a U.S. manager is being sent to London or Sydney or some other English-speaking location for a relatively short time period (e.g., a month or two), then a less intensive training program is more appropriate. In sum, the intensity and duration of a cross-cultural training must be tailored to fit the nature and length of the expatriate assignment.

FIGURE 3.7 Phases of an Expatriate Manager Training Program Source: Adapted from Edward Dunbar and Allan Katcher, “Preparing Managers for Foreign Assignments,” Training and Development Journal (September 1990): 47.

Predeparture

Overseas assignment

Repatriation

Language skills Nation and culture orientation Personal and family orientation Career planning

Language skills Local mentoring Stress training Business issues

Financial management Reentry shock Career management

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TABLE 3.4 Expatriate SelfAwareness: Being Prepared for Culture Shock Source: Adapted from P. R. Harris and Robert T. Moran, “So You’re Going Abroad Survey,” in Managing Cultural Differences, 3rd ed. (Houston: Gulf, 1991).

Prospective global managers should prepare satisfactory answers to the following questions before going on an overseas assignment: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

How will living abroad affect me and my family? What will my spouse do in terms of work and home life? Are my children prepared for living abroad? What assistance and support will be available to us? What will happen to our home and other personal property while we are gone? What arrangements can be made for family pets? How will we handle health care while we are overseas? Can we expect to encounter any anti-Americanism? What about the threat of terrorism? What security measures should we take? What kinds of recreational opportunities are available? Will language barriers present problems for me? What is the proper form of dress for various occasions? How will we handle transportation at the overseas location? What kinds of food can we expect to eat? Are there any experienced expatriates from the organization available who can “show us the ropes?”

Predeparture training includes the critical activities of preparing the expatriate for the overseas assignment. Its purpose is to reduce the amount of culture shock that the manager and his family encounter by familiarizing them with the host country. Among the most important predeparture activities are language training and cultural orientation training. Self-awareness is an important aspect of preparing for an international assignment. Assessment techniques such as the ones in Table 3.4 can be very helpful to the expatriate. Responding to these kinds of questions can help the manager to know just where she’s most likely to encounter the ill effects of culture shock. This kind of advanced preparation can go a long way toward reducing the negative effects of being transplanted to a new culture. The second phase of an expatriate manager training program occurs at the host country site. Some expatriates prefer postarrival cross-cultural training because after they “unpack their suitcases” and are settling in, their motivation is high to learn the language and how to adjust to working and living in the host country.73 In other words, expatriate training does not stop just because the manager has her boarding pass in hand. As seen in Figure 3.6, language instruction continues to be a priority during this phase of training. In addition, mentoring relationships have proven to be effective expatriate training tools. Many organizations with several expatriates at the same overseas location have developed local support groups to help the entire family of a newly arriving expatriate. Some organizations even make participation and leadership in such support groups a part of senior expatriates’ jobs.74 The final phase of an integrated expatriate training program occurs when the manager is preparing to return to the parent country. The process of being reintegrated into domestic operations is referred to as repatriation. And although it may seem straightforward, repatriation can cause culture shock similar to the shock that occurred when the expatriate originally went overseas. Some of the more critical issues that repatriation training must deal with are contained in Figure 3.6. These include the financial adjustments that must be made since the expatriate will frequently lose overseas living subsidies and salary premiums. Helping the manager to get back on career track is also important for repatriation.75

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The Global Theme for Organizations: Behavior, Structure, and Process The majority of theory, research, practice, and concepts that deal with organizations have been proposed by Americans, using American subjects (mostly male), with U.S.-based firms.76 However, globalization has now become a reality. The remaining chapters should be viewed in terms of this global transformation. American-made organizational prescriptions are not superior or inferior to the perspectives offered by others. They are, however, limited in their value. The United States is just one of many important countries in which organizations play a significant role in a nation’s social-political, economic, and technological process. The world’s dramatic shifts require more than culture-bound approaches to managing behavior, structure, and processes. The more a country’s history and culture deviate from America’s, the more caution we need to exercise in evaluating the material in the rest of the chapters in this book. The cultural foundations and influences of this chapter are intended to assist readers in recognizing differences and similarities across cultures.

Summary of Key Points

• Globalization has become a reality. It describes the interdependency of transportation, distribution, communication, and economic networks across international borders. • Cross-cultural management describes organizational behavior within and across countries and attempts to understand and improve the interaction and behavior of coworkers, clients, suppliers, and alliance partners from different cultures and countries. • The American Society for Training and Development has aptly listed a number of skills that global managers will need to compete effectively in the 21st century. These skills are global strategy, cultural diversity management, team building, organization, communication, and transfer of knowledge. • Culture consists of patterns of behavior acquired and transmitted within a society. Culture is learned, shared, transgenerational, an influence on perception, and adaptive. • National culture consists of a set of values, attitudes, beliefs, and norms shared by a majority of the inhabitants of a country. • Cultural dimensions that differentiate one culture from another include people’s relationships to nature, individualism versus collectivism, time orientation, activity orientation, informality, language, and religion. • Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher, has conducted a number of studies that examine national cultures. His initial studies have resulted in the identification of four dimensions that explain some differences and similarities in cultures. The dimensions are uncertainty avoidance (the degree to which people are comfortable with ambiguous situations and with the inability to predict future events with accuracy), masculinity– femininity (masculine cultures are assertive, with dominance practiced and independence valued; feminine cultures are interdependent, compassionate, and emotionally open), individualism–collectivism, and power distance (referring to the degree to which members of a society accept differences in power and status among themselves). • Successful expatriate managers have strong technical and language skills, want to work overseas, are flexible, are supported by their families, and manage stress effectively. • The culture shock cycle involves an initial period of fascination; then a period of shock, confusion, and frustration; and finally a stage that involves adaptation and the ability to cope with the new culture.

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Discussion and Review Questions

1. What are three long-term effects of globalization on businesses, workers, and consumers? Who benefits most/least from globalization? 2. Assume that you want to develop your global skills so that you can pursue international assignments with your company. Identify five skills that you would want to develop, and describe how you would go about improving these skills. 3. Based on Hofstede’s findings, which countries do you believe are most different from the United States? Defend your answer. 4. What is meant by the term a culture-bound theory of motivation? 5. What can a newly assigned expatriate manager do to avoid or diminish the intensity and negative effects of culture shock? Explain. 6. If you found yourself in Robert Adams’s situation (see opening vignette), would you take the three-year expatriate assignment? The virtual expatriate assignment? Or, would you decline both opportunities and remain a domestic employee at the home office? 7. Describe the attitudes a manager would need to be successful and effective in managing in India, China, and Saudi Arabia. 8. Can domestic cultural diversity in the United States help American firms better understand and deal with global cultural diversity? Explain. 9. How does a national culture differ from what is referred to as an organization’s culture? Which “culture” exerts more influence over the behavior of a global company’s employees? 10. Why is religion often incorrectly ignored in discussions and analyses of business, negotiations, and culture?

Taking It to the Net

Offshoring: What’s It All About? Earlier in the chapter, three different Indian outsourcing firms were mentioned, Wipro Ltd., Infosys Ltd., and Tata Consulting Services. You’ll also recall that the activity of offshoring is controversial in that some believe it costs American jobs, while others believe that offshoring is a natural byproduct of free trade and should be left to flourish. To learn more about these successful companies and the controversial offshoring industry, please visit these companies’ Web sites and research the following questions: 1. What do these three firms do? What services do they offer? 2. Which industries do they serve? 3. How do these Indian outsourcing companies save U.S. companies money? The companies’ Web sites can be found at: • Wipro Ltd.: www.wipro.com (click on “Corporate” and then “About us”) • Infosys Ltd.: www.infosys.com (click on “About us”) • Tata Consulting Services: www.tata.com (click on “About us”)

Case for Analysis: Building a Global Outsourcing Powerhouse Nagavara Ramarao Narayana Murthy (also known as “NR”) and six co-founders of Bangalore-based Infosys Technologies had to borrow US $250 to start their IT outsourcing and software company in 1981. Back then,

the idea of Infosys competing with world giants such as IBM in global markets was just wishful thinking. In 2010, Infosys had nearly 114,000 employees in 50 offices and development centers in India, China, Australia,

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the Czech Republic, Poland, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan. Although the company is still relatively small (about US $4.8 billion in annual sales) compared to IBM (US $95.8 billion annual sales), Infosys has become a global powerhouse. NR and his co-founders created Infosys on what are considered the principles of globalization. He found capital where it was the cheapest, produced in a location that was cost effective, and sold services and products where they were most profitable. The sprawling Infosys campus in Bangalore, India, reflects the firm’s global perspective with its high-end restaurant and clocks displaying different time zones. In the past 10 years, repeat business, high-quality software developed in India at a fraction of the cost of European or American development, and investment in research and development have made Infosys a global success story. For example, Belgian mobile communication operator Belgacom Mobile wanted to develop a customer loyalty program that would handle data storage in different languages and provide flexibility for clients. Infosys delivered the program ahead of schedule, providing Belgacom with a high-quality, first-mover product. Building on their early success in software development, over the years Infosys has expanded its list of services and products to include: • • • • • •

Business and technology consulting, Business process outsourcing, Systems integration, Application services, Product engineering, and Testing and validation services.

Infosys has attracted business from Europe, Latin America, Canada, and the United States. NR gained the confidence of customers, some of whom were anxious about using foreign software outsourcing, by meeting

Managing Globally 83

quality standards and schedules. Today, Infosys has the reputation of being one of the best software firms in the world. NR stresses quality in every phase of producing software. His quality initiative is a part of the Infosys company culture. He matches or benchmarks his quality against the world’s most recognized multinational firms. Foreign and institutional investors who in the late 1980s were wary of investing in India are no longer reluctant to invest in Infosys. NR is proudest of Infosys’s ability to compete with any firm, anywhere. He wanted to make a difference in India and throughout the world. Obviously, he has done so through a management system that requires employees to focus on quality production as the top priority. It’s no wonder why NR is considered the “father of the country’s information technology outsourcing industry.”

DISCUSSION AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Which principles of globalization did NR and his colleagues follow when they were growing Infosys into a global powerhouse? 2. According to Hofstede’s research, India has a high score on the power distance dimension. To what degree could this high score help to explain Infosys Technology’s success in the global marketplace? 3. Refer to Table 3.1 in the chapter. Which phase of corporate and cross-cultural evolution do you think Infosys is currently finding itself? Phase I Domestic, Phase II International, Phase III Multinational, or Phase IV Global? Sources: Adapted from Joe Leahy, “Eulogy Barely Scratches the Surface ofthe New India,” Financial Times, January 21, 2010, p. 10; Joe Leahy, “Infosys Heir with a Mantra for Growth,” FT.com, July 8, 2007 (accessed on April 20, 2010); http://www.infosys.com/about/what-we-do/pages/index. aspx (accessed on April 20, 2010); http://www.ibm.com/annualreport/2009/ 2009_ibm_annual.pdf (accessed on April 20, 2010); Anthony Sibillin, “The Best of Both Worlds,” Eurobusiness, April 2002, pp. 40–42.

Experiential Exercise: How Important Is Your Family? OBJECTIVES

GROUP SIZE

1. To illustrate that within different cultures and subcultures the family unit exerts various degrees of influence. 2. To compare your family experience with that of your classmates.

Create diverse groups of three to five students; vary groups in terms of age, gender, nation of birth, and so forth.

TIME REQUIRED Approximately 30 minutes.

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EXERCISE Families play various roles in the decisions a person makes with regard to occupation, career plans, education, and self-improvement. Each group of students is diverse in terms of personal life experiences, background, and family cohesiveness. As a future global manager, it is important for you to understand and appreciate other people’s points of reference. 1. Please read over and consider the “influence” your family has had on your life in terms of • Where you go to school • Career plans • View of international events • Work ethic

• Family responsibility • Ethical behavior • Motivation • Displays of affection • Definition of success 2. Write a brief description of how your family influenced you in these areas. Be sure to include positive and negative experiences about family from a national and subcultural context in which you spent most of your development years (birth to 16 years old). 3. Share your observations and thoughts with group members. Source: Robert Konopaske and John M. Ivancevich, Global Management and Organizational Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2004).

Experiential Exercise: Expatriate Sources on the Web OBJECTIVE To become familiar with a Web site that has information for current and future expatriates and their families.

GROUP SIZE N/A—to be performed individually.

TIME REQUIRED Approximately 1 hour.

OTHER Internet connection and search engine needed.

EXERCISE Using the Internet, visit www.expatexchange.com and become familiar with its information and hyperlinks. Then research and prepare a 3- to 4-sentence response for each of the following scenarios: • Scenario #1: Assume that your organization is about to send you to Thailand for a 3-year expatriate

assignment. Knowing that your spouse would like todo some volunteer work while in Thailand, you decide to do some research on this issue. Using the Web site given earlier, please identify three leads for your spouse that could lead to volunteer opportunities in the host country. • Scenario #2: Assume that you are about to be assigned to São Paolo, Brazil, and would like to “chat” with former expatriates who have lived there to gather information about the quantity and quality of international schools for your children. How would you go about doing that using this Web site? Please describe. • Scenario #3: Assume that you have just been promoted to global marketing manager for a large consumer products company. This new role will require you to visit customers in several countries each year. Please identify five countries that have “travel advisories” for U.S. citizens and summarize why these countries have travel advisories. Source: Robert Konopaske and John M. Ivancevich, Global Management and Organizational Behavior: Text, Reading, Cases, Exercises (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2004).

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T W O

Behavior within Organizations: The Individual 4. Individual Behavior and Differences 5. Motivation: Background and Theories 6. Motivation: Organizational Applications 7. Managing Workplace Stress

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Individual Behavior and Differences

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 4, you should be able to Understand Why employees make attributions about the causes of behaviors and outcomes. Describe How self-efficacy can influence an employee’s behavior. Discuss Why the increasing diversity of the workforce will require the adoption of a different approach to and style of managing employees. Compare The meaning of the psychological contract from the employee and the employer perspectives. 86

Explain Why it’s difficult to change a person’s attitude.

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Individual Behavior and Differences 87

A Grown-Up Risk Taker Mark Cuban started out as a blue-collar kid in Pittsburgh. He had a knack for selling things—magazines, papers, greeting cards, and garbage bags. He had an optimistic personality and paid his own way through Indiana University (IU). Cuban always seemed to be creative and a risk taker. His current net worth is $2.3 billion. Personality traits vary among individuals. Not everyone is as outgoing, risk taking, and creative as Mark Cuban. Creativity has been a special attribute that Cuban has used to become successful. After graduating from IU, Cuban started his own computer consulting company. He worked around the clock to be successful. After seven years of hard work, his firm, Micro Solutions Inc., was grossing $30 million annually. He sold his company to CompuServe. While living in Dallas he wanted to listen to his beloved Hoosier basketball games. He couldn’t get a station from Bloomington. Then he had an idea: Why not broadcast the IU games over the Internet? Broadcast.com was born. The company was a rousing success and eventually was sold to Yahoo! Cuban took away $2 billion from the deal. Cuban took some of his money and purchased the NBA Dallas Mavericks for $280 million from Ross Perot Jr. This unique NBA owner—who started in Pittsburgh, sold greeting cards, started his own businesses, and took risks—is one of a kind. Individual differences in personality, attitudes, perceptions, values, creativity, and risk taking are displayed in reviewing the Mark Cuban history. Lately Cuban has shown an interest in shaking up the media world. He is co-founder of HDNet, a high-definition TV network that provides original sports, music, and entertainment programming. Cuban also founded Sharesleuth.com to provide independent, Web-based reporting aimed at exposing securities fraud. It is obvious that Cuban’s unique, risk-taking personality has helped to make him a successful entrepreneur. Sources: Adapted from http://www.hd.net/ (accessed April 24, 2010); Mark Cuban, Forbes, March 8, 2007, at www.forbes.com/ lists; and Mark Glaser, “Mark Cuban’s Sharesleuth Takes Business Reporting to the Ethical Edge,” Mediashift, August 22, 2006, accessed April 16, 2007, www.pbs.org/mediashift.

Any attempt to learn why people like Mark Cuban, profiled in the opening vignette, behave as they do in organizations requires some understanding of individual differences. As Cuban’s story shows, he is unique, a risk taker, and a hard worker who has been very successful. Individual differences are so dynamic in some instances that any list of characteristics is usually incomplete. From his childhood, Cuban displayed behaviors that marked him as being different from others. He just didn’t, and still doesn’t, fit a particular model. Managers spend considerable time judging the fit between individuals, job tasks, the firm’s culture, and organizational effectiveness. Both the manager’s and the subordinate’s characteristics typically influence such judgments. Without some understanding of behavior, decisions about who performs what tasks in a particular manner can lead to irreversible long-run problems. On the other hand, managers who can correctly identify the individual strengths (and weaknesses) of their employees are in a much better position to deploy them in a manner that increases their organizations’ effectiveness. Employees differ from one another in many respects. A manager needs to ask how such differences influence subordinates’ behavior and performance. This chapter highlights individual differences and dispositions that can make one person a significantly better performer than another person. In addition, the chapter addresses several crucial individual differences that managers should consider. We also talk about how the environment affects individual differences. It’s incorrect to assume that individual differences have no connection at all with the environment (work, family, community, and society). They’re inextricably intertwined.

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The Basis for Understanding Behavior The manager’s observation and analysis of individual behavior and performance require consideration of variables that directly influence individual behavior, or what an employee does (e.g., delivers training programs, processes loan requests, maintains air conditioners). The individual variables include abilities and skills, background, and demographic variables. As Figure 4.1 shows, an employee’s behavior is complex because it’s affected by a number of environmental variables and many different individual factors, experiences, and events. Such individual variables as abilities/skills, personality, perceptions, and experiences affect behavior. Whether managers can modify, mold, or significantly alter their employees’ behaviors is a much-debated issue among behavioral scientists and managerial practitioners. Although they usually agree that changing any individual psychological factor requires thorough diagnosis, skill, patience, and understanding on the part of a manager, there’s no universally agreed-upon method managers can use to change personalities, attitudes, perceptions, or learning patterns. On the other hand, it is recognized that people’s behavior patterns do change, albeit slightly, sometimes when managers would prefer that they remain stable. For example, an employee who used to be a star performer has slowed down and is now just an average employee. Managers must recognize the inherent difficulty in trying to get people to do and think about the things that are desirable to the organization. Managers today face sweeping demographic changes in the workplace. There are more women, African-American, Hispanic, and Asian job applicants and employees. As baby boomers start to retire and demand for qualified applicants increases, more attention must be paid to attracting and retaining the most talented individuals and improving the performance of a diverse workforce.1 Because many workers may lack needed skills, managers will probably have to devote more time to educating, training, mentoring, and creating a positive motivational atmosphere for employees. Managers must determine how to make work more interesting, rewarding, and challenging. Unless they can accomplish this agenda, the outcomes associated with work—such as quality, quantity, and service—will suffer.2 Employees’ behaviors lead to outcomes. They can result in positive, long-term performance and personal growth or the opposite: poor long-term performance and a lack of FIGURE 4.1 Individual Behavior Framework

The environment Work • Job design • Organizational structure • Policies and rules • Leadership • Rewards and sanctions • Resources Nonwork • Family • Economics • Leisure and hobbies

The individual Abilities and skills Family background Personality Perception Attitudes Values Attributions Learning capacity Age Race Sex Experience

Behaviors Problem-solving Thinking process Communication • Talking • Listening Observations Movement

Outcomes Performance • Long-term • Short-term Personal development Relations with others Satisfaction

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individual differences Individuals are similar, but they are also unique. The study of individual differences such as attitudes, perceptions, and abilities helps a manager explain differences in performance levels.

Individual Behavior and Differences 89

growth. As Figure 4.1 also shows, behaviors and outcomes serve as feedback to the person and the environment. Human behavior is too complex to be explained by one sweeping generalization. Figure 4.1 gives only a sampling of the relevant variables that influence human behavior. Because coverage of each of the variables in this figure is beyond the scope of this book, most of our attention is given to three major psychological variables: perception, attitudes, and personality. These three form the foundation for our discussion of motivation, group behavior, and leadership. Learning and motivation variables are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6; other chapters of the book present the organizational variables. Figure 4.1 suggests that effective management requires that individual behavior differences be recognized and, when feasible, taken into consideration while managing organizational behavior. To understand individual differences, managers must (1) observe and recognize the differences, (2) study variables that influence individual behavior, and (3)discover relationships among the variables. For example, managers are in a better position to make optimal decisions if they know employees’ attitudes, perceptions, and mental abilities as well as how these and other variables are related. It is also important to know how each variable influences performance. Being able to observe differences, understand relationships, and predict linkages facilitates managerial attempts to improve performance. Behavior, as outlined in Figure 4.1, is anything that a person does. Talking to a manager, listening to a co-worker, calling a customer, updating the company’s website, and hiring a new employee are behaviors. So are daydreaming about winning the lottery, updating a Facebook page, and learning how to use a firm’s accounting system. The general framework indicates that behavior depends on the types of variables shown in Figure 4.1. Thus, as Kurt Lewin originally proposed, B 5 f(I, E): an employee’s behavior (B) is a function of individual (I) and environmental (E) variables.3 The behavior that results on the job is unique to each individual, but the underlying process is basic to all people. After years of theory building and research, scholars have come to the general agreement that behavior: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Is caused. Is goal directed. That can be observed (e.g., selling) is measurable. That’s not directly observable (e.g., thinking and perceiving) is also important in accomplishing goals. 5. Is motivated. To emphasize these points of agreement, consider the case of Jim, who usually has been an average performer but recently became a high performer. A manager’s analysis (which may be totally incorrect) of this behavior change might be as follows: Jim recently increased his efforts to perform. He has shown more interest in his work and has expressed interest in a vacancy in another department. This suggests that the improved performance occurred because Jim became motivated to work harder to gain a possible promotion. Another explanation of Jim’s behavior change might be that employee cutbacks have him worried. He doesn’t want to lose his job, and fear of job loss motivates him to do more work. The desired result of any employee’s behavior is excellent performance. In organizations, therefore, individual and environmental variables affect not only behavior but also performance. An important part of a manager’s job is to define “good” performance in advance—that is, to state what results are desired. Performance-related behaviors are directly associated with job tasks that need to be accomplished to achieve a job’s objective. For a manager, performance-related behavior would include such actions as identifying

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performance problems; planning, organizing, and controlling employees’ work; and creating a motivational climate for employees.4 Focusing their attention on performance-related behaviors, managers search for ways to achieve optimal performance. If employees aren’t performing well or consistently, managers must investigate the problem. These six questions can help managers to focus on performance problems: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Does the employee have the skills and abilities to perform the job? Does the employee have the necessary resources to perform the job? Is the employee aware of the performance problem? When did the performance problem surface? How do the employee’s co-workers react to the performance problem? What can I do as a manager to alleviate the performance problem?

These questions and their answers again call attention to the complexity of individual differences and performance. They also indicate that when performance problems are identified, some form of managerial action is required.5

Individual Differences The individual variables in Figure 4.1 may be classified as abilities and skills, background, and demographic. Each of these classes of variables helps to explain individual differences in behavior and performance.

Abilities and Skills

ability A biological or learned trait that permits a person to do something mental or physical.

skills Task-related competencies.

job analysis Process of defining and studying a job in terms of behavior and specifying education and training needed to perform the job.

Some employees, although highly motivated, simply don’t have the abilities or skills to perform well. Abilities, skills, and other factors play a role in individual behavior and performance.6 An ability is a trait (innate or learned) that permits a person to do something mental or physical. Skills are task-related competencies, such as the skill to negotiate a merger or operate a computer or the skill to clearly communicate a group’s mission and goals. In this book, the terms are used interchangeably in most cases. Remember that B 5 f(I, E). Table 4.1 identifies 10 mental abilities that make up what’s commonly referred to as intelligence.7 Intelligence is often the best predictor of job success, but “best” does not mean “only,” and many other factors play a role in performance.8 Thus, managers must decide which mental abilities are required to successfully perform each job. For example, a language interpreter helping a manager put together a business deal with a Hungarian enterprise would especially need language fluency, number facility, and verbal comprehension in both English and Hungarian. The astute manager would search for an interpreter who had these abilities. Intelligence is related to more than just job performance. In a recent longitudinal study, general mental ability, when coupled with physical attractiveness and certain personality factors, was linked to higher levels of income.9 A laboratory technician’s job may especially require memory, perceptual speed, and verbal comprehension, as well as various physical skills (see Table 4.2) to operate computer equipment. Managers attempt to match each person’s abilities and skills with the job requirements. The matching process is important because no amount of leadership, motivation, or organizational resources can make up for deficiencies in abilities or skills. Job analysis is used to take some of the guesswork out of matching. It’s the process of defining and studying a job in terms of tasks or behaviors and specifying the responsibilities, education, and training needed to perform the job successfully.10

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TABLE 4.1 Mental Abilities 5 Intelligence Source: Adapted from Marvin D. Dunnette, “Aptitudes, Abilities, and Skills,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Marvin D. Dunnette, ed. (Skokie, IL: Rand McNally, 1976), pp. 481–83.

Mental Ability

Description

1. Flexibility

The ability to hold in mind a particular visual configuration.

2. Fluency

The ability to produce words, ideas, and verbal expressions.

3. Inductive reasoning

The ability to form and test hypotheses directed at finding relationships.

4. Associative memory

The ability to remember bits of unrelated material and to recall.

5. Span memory

The ability to recall perfectly for immediate reproduction a series of items after only one presentation of the series.

6. Number facility

The ability to rapidly manipulate numbers in arithmetic operations.

7. Perceptual speed

Speed in finding figures, making comparisons, and carrying out simple tasks involving visual perceptions.

8. Deductive reasoning

The ability to reason from stated premises to their necessary conclusion.

9. Spatial orientation and visualization

The ability to perceive spatial patterns and to manipulate or transform the image of spatial patterns.

10. Verbal comprehension

Knowledge of words and their meaning as well as the application of this knowledge.

Every job is made up of two things: people and job tasks. Matching people with jobs suited for their abilities and skills is often a problem.11 Why do people end up in jobs in which they aren’t productive, satisfied, or fulfilled? The effort to match jobs involves the following activities: employee selection, training and development, career planning, and counseling. To be successful in matching a person’s abilities and skills to the job, a manager must examine content, required behaviors, and preferred behaviors. Content is the “what” of the job—the job description, responsibilities, goals and objectives, and specific tasks. Required behaviors are the “how” of the job—how it must be done in terms of quantity, quality, cost, and timing. Preferred behaviors are often ignored in matching people and jobs. To be selected, some applicants don’t honestly explain their preferences. Because they want the job so badly, they hold back or even mislead interviewers. Managers must attempt to determine a person’s preference in terms of goals, style, career values, and achievement motives. An ideal job is one in which a person’s skills and abilities can be applied to produce work that’s satisfactory, fulfilling, and challenging. This is the goal of matching a person with the job.

Demographics Among the most important demographic classifications are gender and race. Cultural diversity can also affect work situations. TABLE 4.2 Samples of Physical Skills Source: Adapted from Edwin A. Fleishman, “On the Relation between Abilities, Learning, and Human Performance,” American Psychologist, (November 1972): pp. 1017–32.

Physical Skill

Description

1. Dynamic strength

Muscular endurance in exerting force continuously or repeatedly.

2. Extent flexibility

The ability to flex or stretch trunk and back muscles.

3. Gross body coordination

The ability to coordinate the action of several parts of the body while the body is in motion.

4. Gross body equilibrium

The ability to maintain balance with nonvisual cues.

5. Stamina

The capacity to sustain maximum effort requiring cardiovascular exertion.

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Gender Differences Are men and women different in terms of workplace behavior, job performance, leadership style, or commitment? Are the differences significant? It’s generally accepted that from the moment of birth, boys and girls are treated differently. Research has shown that men and women are generally similar in terms of learning ability, memory, reasoning ability, creativity, and intelligence.12 Despite fairly conclusive research data to the contrary, some people still believe that there are creativity, reasoning, and learning ability differences between the sexes. There have been debates about male and female differences in terms of job performance, absenteeism, and turnover rates. The job performance debate is inconclusive. There are no compelling data suggesting that men or women are better job performers. The only areas in which differences are found somewhat consistently are absenteeism and leadership style. Women have a higher rate of absenteeism since they are usually the primary caregivers to children, elderly parents, and ill spouses, which makes them absent more from the job.13 In a study of the preferred leadership style of male and female leaders in 27 countries, it was reported that female managers prefer participative, team oriented, and charismatic leadership dimensions more than males.14 Whether changes in society will result in more similarity between men and women is difficult to gauge. When society emphasized the difference between the sexes and treated them differently, there were some differences in such areas as aggressiveness and social behavior. But as society places more emphasis on equal opportunity and treatment, many differences are likely to disappear.15 Men and women are becoming more alike in terms of workplace behavior.

Racial and Cultural Diversity

diversity Describes human qualities such as race, gender, and ethnicity that are different from our own and that are outside the groups to which we belong.

Today’s workforce doesn’t look like the workforce of the past. The workforce is now much more diverse in terms of cultural background, values, language skills, and educational preparation. Diversity is a term used to describe the cultural, ethnic, and racial variations in a population. Many culturally diverse groups from around the world (e.g., China, Australia, Colombia, Russia) are spread throughout the workforce. Whether significant differences in job performance across diverse groups exist isn’t known. Studies haven’t been conducted in sufficient numbers to reach a conclusion.16 As a more diverse workforce enters organizations, it will become mandatory to not base decisions, prescriptions, and techniques on white male research results.17 Generalizing from a research dominant group (white males) to women, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and other groups isn’t sound. Faulty generalization can lead to making improper assumptions; presenting inadequate solutions; and implementing inaccurate reward, performance evaluation, and team-building programs. Similarly, minority-based study results are also unlikely to be generalizable to a majority group. Managers aren’t yet as diverse as the rest of the workforce. To manage the increasingly culturally diverse workforce will require flexibility, recognition of individual differences, and increased awareness of cultural background differences. There are a wide variety of Asian, European, Latin American, and African workers. The U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics issued a report predicting that ethnic minority share of the U.S. workforce will be approximately 35 percent in 2018.18 The OB at Work feature captures the effectiveness of three companies’ diversity management approaches. The proliferation of diverse cultural backgrounds in the workforce brings onto center stage differences in values, work ethics, and norms of behavior. Communication issues, insensitivity, and ignorance are likely to become major managerial concerns. There are

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Johnson & Johnson, AT&T, and Coca-Cola: Leaders in Diversity Management

More than 300 companies were considered for being rated a top company in diversity management. Now in its ninth year, The DiversityInc Top 50 Companies for Diversity list is determined solely from a comprehensive survey of diversity management that measures CEO commitment, human capital, corporate communications, and supplier diversity. Johnson & Johnson was ranked No. 1 on the 2009 DiversityInc top 50 companies for Diversity list. The $61.9 billion healthcare company pursues a number of diversity management initiatives, including linking managerial bonuses to diversification results; maintaining a diverse board of directors; providing benefits for same-sex domestic partners; and reporting that 31 percent of the senior-level executives and 47 percent of the company’s highest paid employees are women. AT&T has practiced diversity management for many decades and its number two rank on the 2009 DiversityInc’s Top 50 list is not an accident. The composition of the employees reflects the communities in which AT&T does business. For example, 39 percent of its employees and 30 percent of its managers are minority (i.e., African American, Latino, Asian, and American Indian). AT&T has also earned a variety of other diversity-related awards for their advancement opportunities for women and veterans.

Coca-Cola was ranked number nine on the DiversityInc Top 50 list. This was the sixth consecutive year in which the company was ranked in the top 10. Coca-Cola has accumulated an impressive list of results as a result of the company’s long commitment to diversity management, including: •

50 percent of its U.S. non-hourly workforce is female;

35 percent of its U.S. non-hourly workforce is minority;

From 2007–2009, women in general management roles in the United States have increased to 20 percent; and,

3,100 associates have completed various Diversity Education and Workplace Fairness programs in 2009.

Coca-Cola also established a Women’s Leadership Council that is sponsored by Muhtar Kent, the CEO. The council is part of the firm’s Global Women’s initiative to “help accelerate the global recruitment, development, advancement, and retention of women at the Company.” Sources: Adapted from http://dibp.diversityinc.com/content/1757/ article/5478/; http://www.jnj.com/wps/wcm/jsp/showData.jsp?q= 2009%20annual%20report; http://dibp.diversityinc.com/content/1757/ article/5449/http://www.att.com/gen/corporate-citizenship?pid=17721; http://dibp.diversityinc.com/content/1757/article/5505/; http://www. thecoca-colacompany.com/citizenship/diversity.html (all sites accessed on April 26, 2010).

differences in how individuals from different cultures respond to a request to work harder or to correct a defective product. Managers must learn how to deal with the differences they’ll encounter with a diverse workforce. The increased proportion of people of color and immigrants combined with related educational and linguistic issues will cause managers to work hard to match people with jobs.19 It will be important to fit people with jobs appropriate to their abilities, skills, needs, values, and preferences. This isn’t a new task for managers, but it will be more complex because of the diverse mix of workers. What seems right for the Chinese immigrant may be incongruent for the Brazilian immigrant. If managers can accurately assess and understand the values represented in their work units, they can produce the types of jobs, work atmospheres, and reward systems that result in excellent performance.

Individual Psychological Variables Unraveling the complexity of psychological variables such as personality, perception, attitudes, and values is a challenge for even experienced managers. Even psychologists have a difficult time agreeing on these variables’ meaning and importance, so our goal is to provide meaningful information about them that managers can use in solving on-the-job behavior and performance problems. The manager must continually observe individuals because what goes on inside a person can be easily hidden or masked.

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Perception

perception The process by which an individual gives meaning to the environment. It involves organizing and interpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience.

Individuals use five senses to experience the environment: sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell. Organizing the information for the environment so that it makes sense is called perception. Perception, as Figure 4.2 shows, is a cognitive process. Perception helps individuals select, organize, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Because each person gives her own meaning to stimuli, different individuals “see” the same thing in different ways.20 The way an employee sees a situation often has much greater meaning for understanding behavior than does the situation itself. Stated more thoroughly: The cognitive map of the individual is not, then, a photographic representation of the physical world: it is, rather, a partial, personal construction in which certain objects, selected out by the individual for a major role, are perceived in an individual manner. Every perceiver is to some degree a nonrepresentational artist as it were, painting a picture of the world that expresses his or her individual view of reality.21

Because perception involves acquiring specific knowledge about objects or events at any particular moment, it occurs whenever stimuli activate the senses. Because perception involves cognition (knowledge), it includes the interpretation of objects, symbols, and people in the light of pertinent experiences. In other words, perception involves receiving stimuli, organizing them, and translating or interpreting the organized stimuli to influence behavior and form attitudes. Each person selects various cues that influence his perceptions of people, objects, and symbols. Because of these factors and their potential imbalance, people often misperceive another person, group, or object. To a considerable extent, people interpret the behavior of others in the context of the setting in which they find themselves. The following organizational examples point out how perception influences behavior: 1. The manager believes that an employee is given opportunities to use his judgment about how to do the job, while the employee feels that he has absolutely no freedom to make judgments. 2. A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request is based on what she thought she heard the supervisor say, not on what was actually requested. 3. The manager considers the product sold to be of high quality, but the customer making a complaint feels that it’s poorly made. FIGURE 4.2 The Perceptual Process Reality in work organization Stimuli (e.g., the organization's reward system, the style of persuasion used by a manager, the work flow)

The person's perceptual process: Organizing and translating Factors influencing perception Observation of the stimuli

• Stereotyping • Selectivity • Self-concept • Situation • Needs • Emotions

Outcomes Evaluation and interpretation of reality

A response behavior Attitudes formed

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FIGURE 4.3 Perceptual Differences and Behavior

Individual Behavior and Differences 95

Manager's perception Worker has a lot of freedom to make decisions

Worker's perception Freedom worker is given

I am not given any freedom to make decisions

Manager's behavior

Worker's behavior

No concern about freedom given to worker

Feeling of being left out

Manager's behavior

Worker's behavior

Puzzled by the absence record of worker

Belief that no one really cares

Staying home

4. An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard worker who gives good effort and by another colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort. 5. The salesperson regards his pay increase as totally inequitable, while the sales manager considers it a fair raise. 6. One line operator views working conditions as miserable while a co-worker right across the line regards working conditions as pleasant. These are a few of numerous daily examples of how perceptions can differ. Managers must recognize that perceptual differences exist. Figure 4.3 illustrates how perception works. Suppose the worker in this example has been told that he has the freedom to make decisions about how the job is to be designed. Note that the manager and the employee perceive the job design freedom in different ways; they have different perceptions of the employee’s amount of freedom. Rensis Likert’s classic and still informative research study clearly showed that managers and subordinates often have different perceptions. He examined the perceptions of superiors and subordinates to determine the amounts and types of recognition that subordinates received for good performance. Both supervisors and subordinates were asked how often superiors provided rewards for good work. The results (Table 4.3) show significant differences in what the two groups perceived. Each group viewed the type of recognition given at a different level. In most cases, subordinates reported that very little recognition was provided by their supervisors and that rewards were infrequent. The supervisors saw themselves as giving a wide variety of rewards for good performance. Likert’s TABLE 4.3 The Perceptual Gap between Supervisors and Subordinates Source: Adapted from Rensis Likert, New Patterns in Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961) p. 91.

Type of Recognition

Supervisor’s Perceptions of Frequency

Subordinates’ Perceptions of Frequency

Privileges

52%

14%

More responsibility

48

10

A pat on the back

82

13

Sincere and thorough praise

80

14

Training for better jobs

64

9

More interesting work

51

5

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stereotype An overgeneralized, oversimplified, and self-perpetuating belief about people’s personal characteristics.

study illustrates how marked differences may exist between superiors’ and subordinates’ perceptions of the same events. The manner in which managers categorize others often reflects a perceptual bias. A stereotype is an overgeneralized, oversimplified, and self-perpetuating belief about people’s personal characteristics. For example, many people stereotype used-car salespeople, men stereotype female executives, young employees stereotype older managers, and female workers stereotype male managers. Most people engage in some form of stereotyping, both of other people and of occupations.22 Stereotypes are self-perpetuating because people tend to notice things that fit their stereotype and not notice things that don’t.23 Age has been a basis for stereotyping employees. Researchers have found that managerial actions against older workers are influenced by stereotyping.24 Richard Wilson, a former executive of Monarch Paper Company, provides an example of age-based stereotyping. Even after receiving good performance reviews, he was demoted to a warehouse job that required him to perform menial job tasks. The demotion occurred after he rejected a series of early retirement packages from Monarch. A jury awarded Wilson $3.2 million because of age bias in his demotion. The jury indicated that management attempted to intimidate Mr. Wilson as part of their plan to eliminate older workers, who were considered less productive than younger employees.25 The inaccuracy of stereotyping can result in unfair decisions related to promotions, motivation programs, job design, or performance evaluations.26 It can also result in not selecting the best person for a position. In an era of shortages of highly skilled job talent, organizations will suffer from stereotyping that results in the rejection of a limited pool of candidates. Age, race, gender, ethnicity, disability and lifestyle stereotyping can prove extremely costly in terms of lost talent, jury judgments against the firm, and the loss of goodwill and sales from customers in the stereotyped categories.

Selective Perception The concept of selective perception is important to managers, who often receive large amounts of information and data and may tend to select information that supports their viewpoints. People ignore information or cues that might make them feel discomfort. For example, a salesperson from a pharmaceutical firm is asked by his manager to give her an update on his sales for the current quarter. The salesperson, who always sees things in an optimistic light, tells his boss that his numbers should come in about 10 percent higher than last year’s numbers. This assessment seems overly optimistic and unrealistic to the manager who just found out from someone at the firm that this particular salesman just lost sizeable orders from two major clients. It seems the salesperson in question is using selective perception by ignoring this negative information and instead believing that his remaining and potentially new customers will make up the shortfall in sales revenue.

The Manager’s Characteristics People frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others. Research indicates that (1) knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately,27 (2) one’s own characteristics affect the characteristics identified in others,28 and (3) people who accept themselves are more likely to see favorable aspects of other people.29 Basically, these conclusions suggest that managers perceiving the behavior and individual differences of employees are influenced by their own traits. If they understand that their own traits and values influence perception, they can probably evaluate their subordinates more accurately. A manager who’s a perfectionist tends to look for perfection in subordinates, just as a manager who’s quick in responding to technical requirements looks for this ability in subordinates.

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Situational Factors The press of time, the attitudes of the people a manager is working with, and other situational factors all influence perceptual accuracy. If a manager is pressed for time and has to fill an order immediately, his perceptions are influenced by time constraints. The press of time literally forces the manager to overlook some details, rush certain activities, and ignore certain stimuli, such as requests from other managers or from superiors.

Needs Perceptions are significantly influenced by needs and desires. In other words, the employee, the manager, the vice president, and the director see what they want to see. Like the mirrors in the amusement park’s funhouse, needs and desires can distort the world the manager sees. The influence of needs in shaping perceptions has been studied in laboratory settings. Subjects in various stages of hunger were asked to report what they saw in ambiguous drawings flashed before them. Researchers found that as hunger increased, up to a certain point, the subjects saw more and more of the ambiguous drawings as articles of food. Hungry subjects saw steaks, salads, and sandwiches, while subjects who had recently eaten saw nonfood images in the same drawings.30

Emotions A person’s emotional state has a lot to do with perception. A strong emotion, such as total distaste for an organizational policy, can make a person perceive negative characteristics in most company policies and rules. Determining a person’s emotional state is difficult. Because strong emotions often distort perceptions, managers need to discern which issues or practices trigger strong emotions within subordinates.

Attribution

attribution The process of perceiving the causes of behavior and outcomes.

dispositional attributions Emphasize some aspect of the individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.

situational attributions Attributions that emphasize the environment’s effect on behavior.

Attribution theory provides insight into the process by which we assign cause or motives to people’s behavior. Why did something such as “exceptional performance” or “not submitting a budget on schedule” occur? By knowing how people decide among various explanations of behavior, we get a view of how causes of behavior are assessed. Observing behaviors and drawing conclusions is called making anattribution. When causes of behavior are presented, they’re usually explained in terms of individual or personality characteristics or in terms of the situation in which it occurred. Dispositional attributions emphasize some aspect of the individual such as ability, skill, or internal motivation. Explaining a behavior in terms of something “within” the person such as aggressiveness, shyness, arrogance, or intelligence indicates a dispositional attribution. A situational attribution emphasizes the environment’s effect on behavior. Explaining that a new worker’s low performance was the result of a typical adjustment period in learning the ropes is an example of making a situational attribution. Tardiness at work can be explained by traffic jams or car trouble, which are examples of situational attributions. In attempting to decide whether a behavior should be attributed to the person or to the situation, Kelley proposed using three criteria:31 1. Consensus. Would most other people say or do the same thing in the situation? If so, we’re likely to attribute the behavior (e.g., low-quality production) to the person’s unique qualities. 2. Distinctiveness. Is the behavior unusual or atypical for the person? If so (high distinctiveness), then we infer that some situational factor must be responsible. But if the person behaves this way often, we tend to make a personal attribution. 3. Consistency. Does the person engage in the behavior consistently? When behavior occurs inconsistently, we tend to make situational attributions.

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TABLE 4.4 Criteria and Attributions

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Employee

Consensus

Distinctiveness

Consistency

Attribution

Green

Low

Low

High

Person (disposition)

Brown

High

High

Low

Situation

Black

High

Low

High

Mixed (more dispositional than situational)

In many situations, managers have information about employee consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Suppose that a manager has three employees, Green, Brown, and Black. Making attributions about their performance is important. A quick review of the record is as follows: 1. Green: Currently a high performer. Co-workers are average performers. His record of achievements indicates a history of high performance. 2. Brown: Currently a high performer. Co-workers are high performers. His previous job record indicates some average to low performance. 3. Black: Currently a high performer. Co-workers are high performers. Her previous record is impeccable with only top performance ratings. As managers observing and reviewing these behaviors and records, what attributions can you make? Table 4.4 shows how the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency criteria are applied. Green’s performance is low in consensus, is not distinct because he was a good performer before, and is highly consistent for him. This combination would elicit a dispositional explanation that Green is a self-initiator, a highly motivated worker. Brown is inconsistent in terms of performance; is in line or has high consensus with co-workers; and is highly distinctive because, on previous jobs, Brown was only an average to low performer. Black’s performance is constantly high, it’s similar to co-workers’ (so there’s low distinctiveness), and there’s high consensus.

Attribution Errors Despite guarding against attribution errors, most individuals have certain biases that can result in making errors. An attributional bias is making a judgment with only limited information about the person or situation. Not making a judgment with incomplete information would often be the best action. Research suggests that individuals are more likely to explain others’ actions in terms of internal causes rather than external causes. For example, completing a budget late is likely to result in this type of attribution: he doesn’t like the budgeting process and puts it off (an internal cause); in reality, however, the true reason for the delay was that the manager didn’t provide him with the needed information until an hour before the budget was due (an external cause).32 The fundamental attribution error occurs because it is easier to explain behavior in terms of traits (e.g., procrastinator) than to a manager’s style, system, or situation. The trait-based explanations can be harmful. The individual can be labeled or singled out in negative terms, which can then result in poor career progress because of the inaccurate judgments.

Other Attributional Bias Most people tend to make positive evaluations of others. This is referred to as a general positivity or Pollyanna principle. We generally have an inclination to be positive. Also, people have a tendency to take credit for successful work and deny responsibility for poor

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work. This is called a self-serving bias. Individuals tend to have egocentric recall, in which they keep in mind and recall the good things that were contributed on a project and ignore bad or failed contributions. The excuses people make generally are to blame the problem behaviors on something in the environment instead of something within the individuals.33 One recent study found that American and Japanese companies use self-serving bias to explain negative information in company annual reports.34 Making excuses for oneself often has positive effects because they lower anxiety and keep a person’s self-esteem high.

Attitudes attitudes Mental states of readiness for need arousal.

affect The emotional segment of an attitude.

cognition The perception, opinion, or belief segment of an attitude.

behavior The behavior segment of an attitude.

Attitudes are determinants of behavior because they’re linked with perception, personality, and motivation. An attitude is a positive or negative feeling or mental state of readiness, learned and organized through experience, that exerts a specific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations. Each of us has attitudes on numerous topics— unions, exercise, dieting, career goals, friends, and tax laws, for example. This definition of attitude has certain implications for managers. First, attitudes are learned. Second, attitudes define our predispositions toward given aspects of the world. Third, attitudes provide the emotional basis of our interpersonal relations and identification with others. And fourth, attitudes are organized and are close to the core of personality. Some attitudes are persistent and enduring; yet, like each of the psychological variables, attitudes are subject to change.35 Attitudes are intrinsic parts of a person’s personality. Several theories attempt to account for the formation and change of attitudes. One such theory proposes that people “seek a congruence between their beliefs and feelings toward objects” and suggests that the modification of attitudes depends on changing either the feelings or the beliefs.36 The theory further assumes that people have structured attitudes composed of various affective and cognitive components. These components’ interrelatedness means that a change in one precipitates a change in the others. When these components are inconsistent or exceed the person’s tolerance level, instability results. Instability can be corrected by (1) disavowal of a message designed to influence attitudes, (2) “fragmentation” or breaking off into several attitudes, or (3) acceptance of the inconsistency so that a new attitude is formed. The theory proposes that affect, cognition, and behavior determine attitudes and those attitudes, in turn, determine affect, cognition, and behavior. 1. Affect. The emotional, or “feeling,” component of an attitude is learned from parents, teachers, and peer group members. One study illustrates how the affective component can be measured. A questionnaire was used to survey the attitudes of a group of students toward the church. The students then listened to tape recordings that either praised or disparaged the church. As the tapes played, students’ emotional responses were measured with a galvanic skin response (GSR) device. Both pro-church and anti-church students responded with greater emotion (displayed by GSR changes) to statements that contradicted their attitudes than to those that supported their attitudes.37 2. Cognition. The cognitive component of an attitude consists of the person’s perceptions, opinions, and beliefs. It refers to the thought processes, with special emphasis on rationality and logic. An important element of cognition is the evaluative beliefs held by a person. Evaluative beliefs are manifested as the favorable or unfavorable impressions someone holds toward an object or person. 3. Behavior. The behavioral component of an attitude refers to a person’s intention to act toward someone or something in a certain way (e.g., friendly, warm, aggressive, hostile, or apathetic). Such intentions could be measured or assessed to examine the behavioral component of attitudes.

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FIGURE 4.4 The Three Components of Attitudes

Stimuli— work factors

Attitudes— components

Outcomes— responses

Job design

Affect

Emotional: Statement about liking

Cognition

Perceptual: Statement about belief

Behavior

Action: Statement about behavior

Manager style Company policy Technology Fringe Benefits Salary

cognitive dissonance A mental state of anxiety that occurs when there’s a conflict among an individual’s various cognitions (e.g., attitudes and beliefs) after a decision has been made.

Figure 4.4 presents the three components of attitudes in terms of work factors such as job design, company policies, and fringe benefits. These stimuli trigger affective (emotional), cognitive (thought), and behavioral intentions. In essence, the stimuli result in the formation of attitudes, which then lead to one or more responses (affective, cognitive, or behavioral). The theory of affective, cognitive, and behavioral components as determinants of attitudes and attitude change has a significant implication for managers. They must be able to demonstrate that the positive aspects of contributing to the organization outweigh the negative aspects. Many managers achieve effectiveness by developing generally favorable attitudes in their employees toward the organization and the job. Attitudes have many sources: family, peer groups, coaches, society, and previous job experiences. Early family experiences help shape individuals’ attitudes. Young children’s attitudes usually correspond to their parents’. As children reach their teens, they begin to be more strongly influenced by peers. Peer groups influence attitudes because individuals want to be accepted by others. Teenagers seek approval by sharing similar attitudes or by modifying attitudes to comply with those of a group. Culture, mores, and language influence attitudes. Attitudes of French Canadians toward the English-speaking population of Canada, of Americans toward people in England, and of Cubans toward Americans are learned in society. Within the United States there are numerous subcultures such as ethnic communities, impoverished sections of large cities, and religious groups that help shape people’s attitudes. Through job experience, employees develop attitudes about pay equity, performance review, managerial capabilities, job design, and work group affiliation. Previous experiences account for some individual differences in attitudes toward performance, loyalty, and commitment. Individuals strive to maintain consistency among the components of attitudes. But contradictions and inconsistency often occur, resulting in a state of disequilibrium. The tension stemming from such a state is reduced only when some form of consistency is achieved. The term cognitive dissonance describes a situation where there’s a discrepancy between the cognitive and behavioral components of an attitude.38 Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable so individuals attempt to reduce dissonance. Dissonnance, then, is viewed as a state within a person that, when aroused, elicits actions designed to return the person to a state of equilibrium.39 For example, the chief executive officer of a cigarette company may experience cognitive dissonance if she believes that she’s honest and hardworking but that cigarettes contribute to lung cancer. She may think, “I’m a good human being, but I’m in charge of a firm producing a cancer-contributing product.” These thoughts create inconsistency. Instead of quitting and giving up her successful career, she’s more likely to modify

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her thoughts or cognitions. She could state, “Our firm has manufactured a cigarette that’s now very safe and free of cancer-producing products.” Or she may think that cigarette smoking actually improves smokers’ mental well-being, that it helps them reduce or cope with stress. When inconsistency in attitudes arises, the person can attempt to work the problem out cognitively or behaviorally. Here the CEO used a cognitive process to reduce her dissonance. Cognitive dissonance has important organizational implications.40 First, it helps explain the choices made by an individual with attitude inconsistency. Second, it can help predict a person’s propensity to change attitudes. If individuals are required, for example, by the design of their jobs or occupations to say or do things that contradict their personal attitudes, they may change those attitudes to make them more compatible with what they’ve said or done.

Changing Attitudes Managers often face the task of changing employees’ attitudes because existing attitudes hinder job performance. Although many variables affect attitude change, they can all be described in terms of three general factors: trust in the sender, the message itself, and the situation.41 Employees who don’t trust the manager won’t accept the manager’s message or change an attitude. Similarly, if the message isn’t convincing, there’s no pressure to change. The greater the communicator’s prestige, the greater the attitude change.42 The following is an example of how a communicator’s prestige can influence attitudes. Sir Richard Branson, CEO of Virgin and a world renowned entrepreneur, used his prestige, creativity, and flare for creating “buzz” among the public and press to build his company into a $17 billion success story that employs more than 50,000 employees in 29 countries. Virgin competes in such diverse industries as air and rail travel, mobile phones, media, financial services, and fitness. Branson is using his prestige to push the envelope once again; he is pursing the relatively untapped market of commercial space travel.43 In contrast, a manager who has little prestige and isn’t shown respect by peers and superiors is in a difficult position if the job requires changing subordinates’ attitudes so that they work more effectively. Thus, managers need to be aware of their prestige rating among employees. If they have prestige, they should use it to change attitudes. If they don’t have prestige, attitude change may be virtually impossible. Liking the communicator produces attitude change because people try to identify with a liked communicator and tend to adopt attitudes and behaviors of the liked person.44 Not all managers, however, are fortunate enough to be liked by each of their subordinates. Therefore, liking the manager is a condition for trusting the manager. Even if a manager is trusted, presents a convincing message, and is liked, the problems of changing people’s attitudes aren’t solved. The strength of the employee’s commitment to an attitude is important. A worker who has decided not to accept a promotion is committed to the belief that it’s better to remain in his present position than to accept the promotion. Attitudes that have been expressed publicly are more difficult to change because the person has shown commitment and changing it is admitting a mistake. How much people are affected by attempts to change their attitude depends in part on the situation. While listening to or reading a persuasive message, people are sometimes distracted by other thoughts, sounds, or activities. In addition, studies indicate that people distracted while they listen to a message show more attitude change because the distraction interferes with counterarguing.45 Distraction is just one of many situational factors that can increase persuasion. Another factor that makes people more susceptible to attempts to change attitude are pleasant surroundings. The pleasant surroundings may be associated with the attempt to change the attitude.

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Attitudes and Values values The conscious, affective desires or wants of people that guide their behavior.

Values are linked to attitudes in that a value serves as a way of organizing attitudes. Values are defined as “the constellation of likes, dislikes, viewpoints, shoulds, inner inclinations, rational and irrational judgments, prejudices, and association patterns that determine a person’s view of the world.”46 Certainly, a person’s work is an important aspect of his world. Moreover, the importance of a value constellation is that once internalized, it becomes (consciously or subconsciously) a standard or criterion for guiding one’s actions. The study of values, therefore, is fundamental to the study of managing. There’s evidence that values are also extremely important for understanding effective managerial behavior.47 Values affect the perceptions not only of appropriate ends but also of appropriate means to those ends. From the design and development of organizational structures and processes to the utilization of particular leadership styles and the evaluation of the performance of subordinates, value systems are persuasive. An influential theory of leadership is based on the argument that managers can’t be expected to adopt a leadership style that’s contrary to their “need structures” or value orientations.48 Moreover, when managers evaluate subordinates’ performance, the effects of the managers’ values are noticeable. For example, one researcher reports that managers can be expected to evaluate subordinates with values similar to their own as more effective than subordinates with dissimilar values.49 The effect of values is more pronounced in decisions involving little objective information and, consequently, a greater degree of subjectivity. Another aspect of the importance of values occurs when the interpersonal activities of managers bring them into a confrontation with different, and potentially contradictory, values. Studies have shown that assembly-line workers, scientists, and people in various professional occupations are characterized by particular, if not unique, value orientations.50 Day-to-day activities create numerous situations in which managers must relate to others with different views of what’s right or wrong. Conflicts between managers and workers, administrators and teachers, and line and staff personnel have been documented and discussed in the literature of management. The manner in which these conflicts are resolved and integrated is particularly crucial to the organization’s effectiveness.51 (See Figure 4.5.)

Attitudes and Job Satisfaction job satisfaction The attitude that workers have about their jobs. It results from their perception of the job.

Job satisfaction is an attitude that individuals have about their jobs. It results from their perceptions of their jobs, based on factors of the work environment, such as the supervisor’s style, policies, and procedures, work group affiliation, working conditions, and fringe benefits. While numerous dimensions have been associated with job satisfaction, five in particular have crucial characteristics.52 1. Pay. The amount received and the perceived equity of pay. 2. Job. The extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility. 3. Promotion opportunities. The availability of opportunities for advancement. 4. Supervisor. The supervisor’s abilities to demonstrate interest in and concern about employees. 5. Co-workers. The extent to which co-workers are friendly, competent, and supportive. In some studies, these five job satisfaction dimensions have been measured by the job descriptive index (JDI). Employees are asked to respond yes, no, or can’t decide as to whether a word or phrase describes their attitudes about their jobs. The JDI attempts to measure a person’s satisfaction with specific facets of the job. Other measures of job

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FIGURE 4.5 Integrating Vision and Values within a Strategic Framework Source: Adapted from Paul McDonald and Jeffrey Gandz, “Getting Value from Shared Values,” Organizational Dynamics 20, no. 3 (Winter 1992): 75.

Hard systems Goals Tangible

Profitability Sales growth Service Quality Market leadership Technological leadership On-time delivery High morale Safety and health

Control • Plans • Policies • Procedures • Rewards

Required behaviors

Vision

A graphic and compelling description of the organization in the future

Adaptability Aggressiveness Autonomy Broad-mindedness Cautiousness Intangible Consideration Cooperation Values Courtesy Soft Creativity systems Development Diligence Economy

Experimentation Fairness Forgiveness Formality Humor Initiative Logic Moral integrity Obedience Openness Orderliness Social equality

• Shared meaning • A sense of belonging • Common frames of reference

Emergent reality

Fulfillment of stakeholder needs

Customer needs Employee needs Shareholder needs Society needs

Commitment

satisfaction, such as the Brayfield-Rothe measures, are more general. Figure 4.6 on the next page presents sample items from four scales measuring job satisfaction. A major reason for studying job satisfaction is to provide managers with ideas about how to improve employee attitudes. Many organizations use attitude surveys to determine levels of employee job satisfaction. National surveys in the past have indicated that, in general, 75 to 80 percent of workers are satisfied with their jobs.53 There is still a general assumption that compensation is the most important factor in terms of the job satisfaction factor. The next OB at Work feature suggests that caution should be the rule when assuming that the way to improve job satisfaction is to use money as the key reward. Job security, communication, recognition, and trust should also be carefully considered by managers.

Job Satisfaction and Job Performance One of the most researched, debated, and controversial issues in the study of job satisfaction is its relationship to job performance.54 For years, many managers believed that a satisfied employee was a high-performing employee. Others proposed the opposite; that an employee who performs well is more likely to be satisfied with his or her job. Research into these questions has attempted to clarify the extent and direction of causality (i.e., which variable comes first) of the relationship between satisfaction and performance. Researchers analyzed 312 samples and over 54,000 respondents from previous research studies on job satisfaction and performance.55 They identified seven different perspectives

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FIGURE 4.6 Sample Items from Four Widely Used Job Satisfaction Scales

Brayfield-Rothe Satisfaction Scale (General Measure) My job is like a hobby to me. Strongly agree Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly disagree

I enjoy my work more than my leisure time. Strongly agree Agree Undecided

Disagree

Strongly disagree

Job Descriptive Index (Facet Measure) How well does each word describe your pay? Circle Y if it does describe your pay, N if it does not describe your pay, or ? if you cannot decide. Less than I deserve Y N ?

Insecure Y N ?

Highly paid Y N ?

GM Faces Scale (General Measure) Consider all aspects of your job. Circle the face which best describes your feelings about your job in general.

7 6 5 4 3 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Facet Measure)

2

1

On my present job, this is how I feel about . . . 1. Being able to keep busy all the time. Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Neutral

Satisfied

Very satisfied

2. The praise I get for doing a good job. Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied

Neutral

Satisfied

Very satisfied

that have been used to explain the satisfaction-performance relationship. Three of the more common perspectives include: (1) satisfaction causes performance; (2) performance causes satisfaction; and (3) rewards intervene, and there’s no inherent relationship.56 (Figure 4.7 shows the three viewpoints.) One research study concluded that there is a moderate correlation between job satisfaction and job performance and that some of the seven models have received partial support in previous research studies. The authors of the study also noted that the strength of the relationship between satisfaction and performance varied based on other variables. For example, the relationship between satisfaction and performance becomes stronger when jobs are high in complexity. They propose a model that includes FIGURE 4.7 Satisfaction– Performance Relationships: Three Views

1. Job satisfaction

causes "The satisfied worker is more productive."

Job performance

2. Job satisfaction

is caused by "The more productive worker is satisfied."

Job performance

3. Job satisfaction

"There is no specific direction or relationship."

Job performance

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Is Pay the Most Important Factor?

Pay is often considered to be the main factor that leads to job satisfaction. However, the 2009 Employee Job Satisfaction survey by the Alexandria, Virginia–based Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) points out that the top concern for employees is job security. Other important predictors of job satisfaction were benefits, compensation and pay, opportunities to use skills and abilities, and feeling safe in the work environment. Among the human resource professionals who were surveyed, the two most important contributions to job satisfaction were job security and relationship with immediate supervisor. Other important factors included communication between employees and senior management, opportunities to use skills and abilities, and management recognition of employee job performance. Compensation and pay dropped from one of the top five factors to seventh place. Bill Maness, president of Syndeo Outsourcing LLC, says he’s not surprised to see that employees rank benefits so high. “(Benefits) are getting so expensive, so that’s understandable,” he says. And, he believes job security, in his experience, is different with the category a worker is in. For most blue-collar and gray-collar workers (employees in clerical positions), job security is the overriding concern in a soft economy. The reason is simple, he says: their jobs can most easily be shipped off to other parts of the world. Blue-collar jobs have been lost to Mexico and China, where wages are lower. And gray-collar workers have been facing a steady stream of “offshoring,” where jobs are moved to India or other countries where pay is lower.

For higher-paid managerial positions, however, where job loss is more difficult, the concerns are different, Maness says. There, job satisfaction is more important. “For them, job security is not as vital an issue,” he says. Gary Hardman, president of Hardman Benefits, says an often-overlooked factor in job satisfaction is career advancement opportunities within the organization. “The opportunity to grow is a top concern for many,” he says. Hardman says he often sees that reason cited for people who are in job or career transitions. But, given current conditions, Hardman, who has more than 20 years of experience in the field, is not surprised that job security and benefits are the top-ranking concerns for employees. Workers have been more concerned recently about benefits as companies have reduced them or, in the case of health care, required higher deductibles, Hardman says. To save costs, some of Hardman’s clients, most of whom are in the 25- to 100-employee range, have eliminated once-standard benefits such as dental plans. “Through understanding what employees want, HR professionals can have a great impact on their workforce,” he says. Sources: Adapted from “2009 Employee Job Satisfaction: Understanding the Factors That Make Work Gratifying,” A Survey Report by the Society for Human Resource Management—See http://www.shrm.org/Research/SurveyFindings/Articles/Pages/ 2009JobSatisfactionSurveyReport.aspx (accessed on April 26, 2010); Jeanne Sahadi, “You May Be Paid More (or Less) Than You Think,” CNNMoney.com, March 29, 2006.

aspects from all seven perspectives and conclude that many factors (e.g., personality, success and achievement, positive mood and performance-rewards contingency) influence the satisfaction-performance relationship.57 In sum, managers and researchers alike will continue to be interested in the job satisfaction and job performance relationship. Whenever possible, managers should create an environment in which employees are both satisfied and perform their jobs well. From a practical standpoint, most managers want employees who are both satisfied and productive. So managers continue to be interested in job satisfaction despite evidence that satisfaction doesn’t determine, in any significant way, the level of performance. But some theorists and researchers suggest performance has a broader meaning than simply units or quality of production.58 Performance also covers a variety of citizenship behaviors, including showing untrained colleagues how to complete a job, helping a fellow worker complete a job when he’s not feeling well, making positive comments in the community about the organization, working extra hard to deliver promised goods or services, and not complaining when management doesn’t provide resources as promised. These behaviors are more prevalent among satisfied workers.59 Another reason for continued management interest is that research has found some indication of a modest correlation between satisfaction and turnover, but this is far from a

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strong linkage.60 Evidence also exists of a moderate relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. Dysfunctional turnover and absenteeism are expensive in terms of costs, lost opportunities, and overall morale. Some evidence shows a relationship between satisfaction and union activity. Dissatisfaction stemming from perceptions of pay inequities, poor supervisor–subordinate relationships, and inadequate working conditions initiate and sustain activities such as voting for union representation.61 Although job satisfaction doesn’t influence quantity and quality of performance, it does influence citizenship behaviors, turnover, absenteeism, and preferences and opinions about unions. Because of these influences, managers continue to search for techniques and programs that improve employee job satisfaction. Many practicing managers have apparently concluded that performance means more than simply counting the quantity and quality of production.

Job Satisfaction Comparison of Individuals in Work Arrangements Data indicate that there are more than 10 million independent contractors in the United States. There are also 17.6 million firms with no employees. Few studies have examined self-employed business owners, independent contractors, and organizational employees on job satisfaction. Prottas and Thompson conducted a comparison study of individuals in different work arrangements: self-employed, self-employed with no employees, and organizational employees. The Prottas and Thompson findings suggest that the self-employed (no employees) group was older and reported higher levels of job satisfaction and lower job stress than the other two groups.62 The independent owners indicated higher levels of job autonomy and satisfaction, and lower levels of job pressure than small-business owners (that have employees) and organizational employees. The self-employed (e.g., have employees) reported the greatest amount of job pressure and worked the longest hours. However, they also had the highest levels of income. The independent owners worked the fewest hours of the three groups studied. If autonomy satisfaction is important, the results of this study suggest that self-employment, either as an owner or an independent, is a better career choice than organizational employment.

Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction More than 75 percent of all businesses in the United States and in other developed countries are service oriented, where it is necessary for employees to interact with customers. It is important for service-oriented organizations to satisfy customers so that they return. To accomplish a goal of high customer satisfaction, employees have to be happy or satisfied with their own jobs. Several companies that provide outstanding customer service were named in the 2008 Businessweek Customer Service Champions list, including the Four Seasons Hotel, L.L. Bean, JetBlue, Amazon.com, Chick-fil-A, Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, and Trader Joe’s.63 Other organizations like Nordstrom, FedEx, Southwest Airlines, and Blue Bell are companies that work extensively to satisfy customers.64 The theme of what is practiced at these companies is this: “A happy worker who displays a friendly, pleasant or warm demeanor is what is needed to create happy, satisfied, and returning customers.” Research shows that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.65 Rude, incivil, combative, and complaining customers can leave employees unhappy. The dissatisfied customer appears to increase employee job dissatisfaction. Thus, job satisfaction and customer satisfaction can flow in both directions. To combat the dissatisfied-customer-leads-to-thedissatisfied-employee situation, organizations such as Southwest Airlines attempt to hire individuals with pleasant, positive, and upbeat attitudes.66

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Personality

personality A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in people’s behavior.

Why are some people concerned about the quality of the job they do while others aren’t? Why are some people passive and others very aggressive? The manner in which a person acts and interacts is a reflection of his personality. Personality is influenced by hereditary, as well as cultural and social factors. Regardless of how it’s defined, however, psychologists generally accept certain principles about personality: 1. Personality is an organized whole; otherwise, the individual would have no meaning. 2. Personality appears to be organized into patterns that are to some degree observable and measurable. 3. Although personality has a biological basis, its specific development is also a product of social and cultural environments. 4. Personality has superficial aspects (such as attitudes toward being a team leader) and a deeper core (such as sentiments about authority or the Protestant work ethic). 5. Personality involves both common and unique characteristics. Every person is different from every other person in some respects while being similar to other persons in other respects. These five ideas are included in this definition of personality: An individual’s personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments that have been significantly formed by inheritance and by social, cultural, and environmental factors. This set of variables determines the commonalities and differences in the behavior of the individual.67 A review of the determinants shaping personality (Figure 4.8) indicates that managers have little control over them. But no manager should conclude that personality is an unimportant factor in workplace behavior simply because it’s formed outside the organization. An employee’s behavior can’t be understood without considering the concept of personality. In fact, personality is so interrelated with perception, attitudes, learning, and motivation that any attempt to understand behavior is grossly incomplete unless personality is considered.

FIGURE 4.8

Cultural forces • Norms • Values • Attitudes

Some Major Forces Influencing Personality

Hereditary forces • Biological rhythms • Gender • Physical attributes • Genetics

The individual's personality

Family & environment forces • Birth order • Size • Structure

Social class & other group membership forces • Peers • Friends • Reference persons

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Theories of Personality Three theoretical approaches to understanding personality are the trait approach, the psychodynamic approach, and the humanistic approach.

trait personality theories Theories based on the premise that predispositions direct the behavior of an individual in a consistent pattern.

psychodynamic personality theories Freudian approach that discusses the id, superego, and ego. Special emphasis is placed on unconscious determinants of behavior.

Trait Personality Theories Just as the young child always seems to be searching for labels by which to classify the world, adults also label and classify people by their psychological or physical characteristics. Classification helps to organize diversity and reduce the many to a few. One approach is by using trait personality theories. Gordon Allpost was the most influential of the trait theorists. In his view, traits are the building blocks of personality, the guideposts for action, the source of the individual’s uniqueness. Traits are inferred predispositions that direct the behavior of an individual in consistent and characteristic ways. Furthermore, traits produce consistencies in behavior because they’re enduring attributes, and they’re general or broad in scope.68 For decades, psychologist Raymond B. Cattell has studied personality traits, gathering many measures of traits through behavioral observation, records of people’s life histories, questionnaires, and objective tests.69 On the basis of his research, Cattell has concluded that 16 basic traits underlie individual differences in behavior. The research resulted in the development of Cattell’s 16 PF (16 personality factors) questionnaire, which measures the degree to which people have these traits. Among the traits he identified are reserved– outgoing, practical–imaginative, relaxed–tense, and humble–assertive. All 16 of Cattell’s traits are bipolar; that is, each trait has two extremes (e.g., relaxed–tense). Trait theories have been criticized as not being real theories because they don’t explain how behavior is caused. The mere identification of such traits as tough-minded, conservative, expedient, reserved, or outgoing doesn’t offer insight into the development and dynamics of personality. Furthermore, trait approaches haven’t been successful in predicting behavior across a spectrum of situations owing to the fact that situations (the job, the work activities) are largely ignored in trait theories. Psychodynamic Personality Theories The dynamic nature of personality wasn’t addressed seriously until Sigmund Freud’s work on psychodynamic personality theories was published. Freud accounted for individual differences in personality by suggesting that people deal with their fundamental drives differently. To highlight these differences, he pictured a continuing battle between two parts of personality, the id and the superego, moderated by the ego.70 The id is the primitive, unconscious part of the personality, the storehouse of fundamental drives. It operates irrationally and impulsively, without considering whether what’s desired is possible or morally acceptable. The superego is the storehouse of an individual’s values, including moral attitudes shaped by society. The superego, which corresponds roughly to conscience, is often in conflict with the id: the id wants to do what feels good, while the superego insists on doing what’s “right.” The ego acts as the arbitrator of the conflict. It represents the person’s picture of physical and social reality, of what leads to what and of which things are possible in the perceived world. Part of the ego’s job is to choose actions that gratify id impulses without having undesirable consequences. Often the ego has to compromise, to try and satisfy both id and superego. This sometimes involves using ego defense mechanisms—mental processes that resolve conflict among psychological states and external realities. Table 4.5 presents some of the ego defense mechanisms used by individuals. Even Freud’s critics admit that he contributed to the modern understanding of behavior. His emphasis on unconscious determinants of behavior is important. The significance he attributed to early-life origins of adult behavior encouraged the study of child development. In addition, his method of treating neurosis through psychoanalysis has added to our understanding of how to get people back on the right track toward effective functioning.71

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TABLE 4.5 Some Ego Defense Mechanisms

humanistic personality theories Place emphasis on growth and selfactualization of people.

personality test Test used to measure emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitude characteristics that make up a person’s personality.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) A widely used survey for assessing personality.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A scale that assesses personality or cognitive style. Respondents’ answers are scored and interpreted to classify them as extroverted or introverted, sensory or intuitive, thinking or feeling, and perceiving or judging. Sixteen different personality types are possible.

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Mechanism

How It’s Applied in an Organization

Rationalization

Attempting to justify one’s behavior as being rational and justifiable. (I had to violate company policies to get the job finished.)

Identification

Increasing feelings of worth by identifying self with person or institution of illustrious standing. (I am working for Jim, who is really the best manager in the country.)

Compensation

Covering up weakness by emphasizing desirable traits or making up for frustration in one area by overgratification in another. (I may be a harsh manager, but I play no favorites.)

Denial of reality

Protecting self from unpleasant reality by refusing to perceive it. (There is no chance that this company will have to let people go because of the economy.)

Humanistic Personality Theories Humanistic personality theories emphasize the individual’s growth and self-actualization and the importance of how people perceive their world and all the forces influencing them. Carl Rogers’s approach to understanding personality is humanistic (people centered).72 His advice is to listen to what people say about themselves and to attend to those views and their significance in the person’s experiences. Rogers believes that the human organism’s most basic drive is toward self-actualization— the constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential. It’s hard to criticize theories that are so people centered. Some critics complain, however, that the humanists never explain clearly the origin of the mechanism for attaining self-actualization. Other critics point out that people must operate in an environment largely ignored by the humanists; an overemphasis on self neglects the reality of having to function in a complex environment. Each major theoretical approach improves our understanding of personality. Trait theories provide a catalog that describes the individual. Psychodynamic theories integrate the characteristics of people and explain the dynamic nature of personality development. Humanist theories emphasize the person and the importance of self-actualization to personality. Each approach attempts to highlight the unique qualities of an individual that influence her behavior patterns.

Measuring Personality Characteristics Personality tests measure emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitudinal characteristics. Hundreds of such tests are available to organizations. One of the most widely used, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), consists of statements to which a person responds true, false, or cannot say. MMPI items cover such areas as health, psychosomatic symptoms, neurological disorders, and social attitudes, as well as many wellknown neurotic or psychotic manifestations such as phobias, delusions, and sadistic tendencies.73 Managers in organizations aren’t enthusiastic about using the MMPI. It’s too psychologically oriented, is associated with psychologists and psychiatrists, and has a reputation of being used to help people with problems. A tool some managers find more comfortable is the 100-question Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), briefly described in the accompanying OB at Work feature. There is little empirical-based evidence that has dampened the use of the MBTI in organizations. More than 2 million people a year in the United States complete the MBTI. Projective tests, also used to assess personality, have people respond to a picture, an inkblot, or a story. To encourage free responses, only brief, general instructions are given; for

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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Is Preferred by Managers

Hallmark Cards, Apple, ExxonMobil, Honda Motors, 3M, AT&T, and General Electric are using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator scale to learn about personality. In the 1920s, noted Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung developed a cognitive-style theory of personality, which the American mother–daughter team of Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers later converted into the MBTI, a scale organizations like to use. Jung had proposed that two dimensions (sensation and intuition) influence a person’s perception. Also, two dimensions (thinking and feeling) affect individual judgment. He believed that an individual’s cognitive style is determined by the pairing of a person’s perception and judgment tendencies. Myers and Briggs developed a test (Samples: Which word appeals to you more: build/invent? In a large group, do you more often introduce others or are you introduced?) so that respondents can discover their personality or cognitive style type. The test identifies people as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). A person’s answers are divided and classified into 16 different personality types. Four of the combinations and some typical occupations are Sensation–Thinking: Thorough, logical, practical, and application oriented. Auditor of CPA firm, quality control supervisor, or safety engineer. Intuitive–Thinking: Creative, independent, critical. Lawyer, systems analyst, college professor. Sensation–Feeling: Committed, responsible, conscientious. Union negotiator, social worker, drug supervisor. Intuitive–Feeling: Charismatic, people-oriented, sociable. Politician, public relations specialist, human resource director. Can the MBTI be so good that more than 2 million people a year use it to diagnose personality? Jim Talman, vice president of Bayson (a small firm that sells electrical parts in the

Southwest and Mexico), believes that it is. It’s one of a number of techniques Bayson uses to find the best sales personnel for a job in which language proficiency, cultural sensitivity, and openness in working with customers in Mexico are important. In addition, Bayson has found that the high-scoring sensationfeeling and extroverted salespeople have the best sales records in Mexico. Bayson hasn’t validated the MBTI, but management still believes that it helps them to make better selections. Leaders at Hallmark Cards also feel strongly that this tool can be helpful. A nearly 100-year-old organization, Hallmark has assessed over 1,000 of its managers with a Myers-Briggs type indicator with the hope that the information can help its managers understand better how others perceive their actions and communications. The goal of the company is to become a much more customer-oriented and efficient. Thousands of firms apparently find some value in the MBTI. Is it essentially sound, valid, and reliable? We aren’t sure. But even though some researchers have called for cautious use of the MBTI, organizational practitioners continue to charge ahead and use it to identify links between personality types and organizational effectiveness. Sources: Adapted from J. Overbo, “Using Myers-Briggs Personality Type to Create a Culture Adapted to the New Century,” T 1 D, 64, no. 2 (2010): 70–72; David J. Pittenger, “Cautioning Comments Regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,” Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research (Summer 2005): 210–21; Ruthann Fox-Hines and Roger B. Bowersock, “ISFJ, ENTP, MBTI: What’s It All About?” Business & Economic Review, January–March 1995, pp. 3–7; Gregory J. Boyle, “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some Psychometric Limitations,” Australian Psychologist (March 1995): 71–74; Lance Lindon, “Linking an Intervention Model to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Consultancy and Managerial Roles,” Journal of Managerial Psychology (1995) 21–29; Bonnie G. Mani, “Progress on the Journey to Total Quality Management: Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Adjective Check List in Management Development,” Public Personnel Management (Fall 1995): 365–98; Carol Hildebrand, “I’m OK, You’re Really Weird,” CIO, October 1995, pp. 86–89; discussions with corporate executives in Juarez, Mexico, and Houston, El Paso, and San Antonio, Texas, in summer and fall 1989.

the same reason, the test pictures or stories are vague. The underlying reason for this is that each individual perceives and interprets the test material in a manner that displays his or her personality. That is, the individual projects his or her attitudes, needs, anxieties, and conflicts. A behavioral measure of personality involves observing the person in a particular situation. For example, an individual may be given a specific work situation problem to solve. The person’s problem-solving ability is studied in terms of the steps taken, time required to reach a solution, and quality of the final decision. Each of these measures of personality has drawbacks: Self-report tests have an accuracy problem; projective tests require a subjective interpretation by a trained person; and behavioral measures rely on a small sample of a person’s behavior.

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The Big Five Model As a review of the literature indicates, there are many different dimensions of personality that can be used to describe people. Over the past two decades, a consensus has emerged that five dimensions or factors can be used to described a substantial amount of human personality.74 Organizational researchers have labeled these factors the “Big Five” personality dimensions75: Conscientiousness. The hardworking, diligent, organized, dependable, and persistent behavior of a person. A low score on this dimension depicts a lazy, disorganized, and unreliable person. Research suggests that individuals who score high in conscientiousness tend to have high levels of motivation and perform well across several different types of occupations.76 Extraversion–introversion. The degree to which a person is sociable, gregarious, and assertive versus reserved, quiet, and timid. Research has been reported that extraverted people tend to perform well in sales and management jobs, do better in training programs, and have higher levels of overall job satisfaction.77 Agreeableness. The degree of working well with others by sharing trust, warmth, and cooperativeness. People who are low scorers on this dimension are cold, insensitive, and antagonistic. People who are high in agreeableness tend be better team players and get along better with colleagues, customers, and other stakeholders.78 Jobs and professions that require such individuals include customer service, sales, auditing, nursing, teaching, and social work. Emotional stability. The ability a person displays in handling stress by remaining calm, focused, and self-confident, as opposed to insecure, anxious, and depressed. Recent research suggests that individuals who possess high levels of both emotional stability and conscientiousness (i.e., a “buoyant” personality) tend to have higher levels of performance and are more likely to stay with the organization.79 Openness to experience. A person’s range of interest in new things. Open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive, as opposed to being closed-minded. People high in openness tend to thrive in jobs and occupations where change is continuous and where innovation is necessary. For example, people who create spectacular special effects for large-budget action films (e.g., Avatar) need high levels of this personality dimension. Through a growing number of studies, researchers are finding that the “Big Five” play an important role in workplace behaviors.80 As the nearby OB and Your Career suggests, finding a job or career that fits your personality is an important step toward achieving success.

Personality and Behavior locus of control A personality characteristic that describes people who see the control of their lives as coming from inside themselves as internalizers. People who believe that their lives are controlled by external factors are externalizers.

An issue of interest to behavioral scientists and researchers is whether the personality factors measured by such inventories as the MBTI, the MMPI, and the 16PF questionnaire; by projective tests; or by behavioral measures collected in controlled settings can predict behavior or performance in organizations. Using a total inventory to examine whether personality is a factor in explaining behavior is rarely done in organizational behavior research. Typically, people try to gain a perspective on personality by measuring different facets of personality such as locus of control, creativity, or Machiavellianism. Locus of Control The locus of control of individuals determines the degree to which they believe that their behaviors influence what happens to them. Some people believe that they’re autonomous—that they’re masters of their own fate and bear personal responsibility for what happens to them. They see the control of their lives as coming from inside

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

Finding a Job that Fits

Finding a job or career that fits with “who you are” is probably easier said than done, but it is still very worthwhile goal to pursue. For people who have worked in jobs and careers that didn’t fit them, chances are pretty good that they occasionally dreaded going to work and didn’t want to go the “extra mile” to achieve high performance. These people probably left their ill-fitting jobs as soon as they could find a job or career that fit better with their personalities and work preferences. So, how can a person find a job or career that fits well? There’s no perfect answer to this question, but a person could take the following steps to increase his or her chances of finding a good fit: 1. Complete several online personality inventories to learn about yourself. Individuals who know their scores on the Myers-Briggs type indicator and the Big Five Personality inventory will be better able to pursue jobs that fit their dispositions. For example, if a person scores high in extraversion and agreeableness, then jobs that require a large amount of interaction with people (e.g., teaching, sales,

customer service, etc.) will provide a better fit than those jobs that are more solitary in nature (e.g., research). 2. Ask current and previous co-workers, supervisors, and customers (if possible) to describe your strengths and weaknesses as an employee. Pay special attention to recurring themes across these individuals (i.e., a key strength of the individual is the ability to resolve customer problems), for this suggests that the observations are more likely to be true. 3. Make a list of all current and previous jobs. Next, make a list of the aspects of each job that you liked and disliked the most. Upon comparing the lists, look for themes (e.g., I don’t like working on teams) that can help identify what a “good job” looks like relative to the alternative. 4. Seek out people who have jobs that you find interesting and ask them for a 10-minute “informational interview.” The purpose of this type of interview is to ask questions about the person’s job to see if it’s something that really interests you. However, be sure you don’t ask for a job; you’re there to learn and build your network, not interview for a specific job.

themselves. Rotter called these people internals.81 Rotter also held that many people view themselves as helpless pawns of fate, controlled by outside forces over which they have little, if any, influence. Such people believe that the locus of control is external rather than internal. Rotter called them externals. A study of 900 employees in a public utility found that internally controlled employees were more content with their jobs, more likely to be in managerial positions, and more satisfied with a participative management style than were employees who perceived themselves to be externally controlled.82 An interesting study of 90 entrepreneurs examined locus of control, perceived stress, coping behaviors, and performance.83 The study was done in a business district over a 3.5-year period following flooding by Hurricane Agnes. Internalizers were found to perceive less stress than did externalizers and to employ more task-centered coping behaviors and fewer emotion-centered coping behaviors. In addition, internalizers’ task-oriented coping behaviors were associated with better performance. The available data have generally indicated that entrepreneurs in most fields, whether male of female, are likely to have an internal locus of control.84 Locus of control and other personality traits have been identified as an important trait that differentiates the Gen Y with the other generations in the workplace. The OB at Work feature examines some new thinking about the personality traits and values of the Gen Yers. In general, research results suggest that internals are more resistant to pressure to conform and are less likely to be persuaded to change their attitudes. Externals appear to be more receptive to structured jobs and seem more receptive to participation in job-related decision making.85 Evidence suggests that people’s behavior changes from one situation to another and that their belief in an internal or external locus of control varies depending on the culture that they have been socialized in86 and the particular situation they face.87 In regard to the latter, attempts are now being made to measure a person’s specific internal or external locus of control concerning both work88 and health issues.89

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External Locus of Control • Implications: not taking responsibility for success or failures. Organizational response: more work in teams and add accountability for performance.

Less Need for Social Approval • Implications: casual dress and tone with supervisors, customers, etc. •

Organizational response: dress codes and mentoring.

Higher Self-Esteem • Implications: high need for praise; less ethical behaviors. •

Organizational response: encourage managers to praise and provide ethics training.

self-efficacy The belief that one can perform adequately in a situation. Self-efficacy has three dimensions: magnitude, strength, and generality.

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Gen Y Employees: Are They Changing the Workplace?

Research suggests that Gen Y employees (also known as Millennials), who are now in their 20s and early 30s, are different in many substantive ways from members of other generations (i.e., Gen X, baby boomers, etc.). In general, Gen Y workers are thought to be very comfortable with technology, prefer jobs that are defined by task, not by time, and are more individualistic and focused on their own interests and lifestyles. However, there may be deeper level psychological traits and values that differentiate this segment of the workforce from the older generations. Research suggests that the following traits are common among Gen Y workers:

Individual Behavior and Differences

Higher Anxiety and Depression • Implications: stressed-out and less productive workers; absenteeism and turnover. •

Organizational response: stress management training and mental health services.

Women More Assertive • Implications: more women in powerful positions. •

Organizational response: provide flextime, childcare; gender equality.

How can Gen Y workers use the above information about the shared personality traits of their generation? They can look for jobs and careers that fit well with these and their individual personality traits. For example, Gen Y workers may want to work for organizations that value work/life balance and a casual work environment, offer meaningful work assignments, have supportive managers who give a lot of feedback, and offer ongoing training and career enhancement opportunities. There are many jobs and careers from which Gen Y workers can choose; a better fit will generally lead to high job and life satisfaction in the long run. Sources: Adapted from Jean M. Twenge and Stacy M. Campbell, “Generational Differences in Psychological Traits and Their Impact on the Workplace,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 23, no. 8 (2008): 862–877; Tamara J. Erickson, “Task, Not Time: Profile of Gen Y Job,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 2 (2008): 19; Karen Auby, “A Boomer’s Guide To Communicating with Gen X and Gen Y,” Businessweek, August 25, 2008, pp. 63–64; Elisabeth Kelan, “Generational and Gender Transformations,” Personnel Today, September 16, 2008, pp. 38–40.

Self-Efficacy When individuals acquire an internal control orientation that leads them to set goals and develop action plans to accomplish them, they develop a sense of self-efficacy. Bandura discusses the self-efficacy concept as a part of social learning theory.90 He contends that self-efficacy is a belief that we can perform adequately in a particular situation. People’s sense of capability influences their perception, motivation, and performance. Most individuals don’t even try to do things, such as accept a promotion or use a computer, when they expect to be ineffectual. People avoid others and situations in which they feel inadequate. Bandura believes that perceptions of one’s abilities are best thought of as a host of specific evaluations.91 Individuals evaluate their past and actual accomplishments, the performance of others, and their own emotional stress. Besides influencing a person’s choice of activities, tasks, and situations, these evaluations also influence how much effort is expended and how long the person continues to try to succeed. Figure 4.9 displays a model of self-efficacy based on Bandura’s work. The behaviors of a person with high self-efficacy are positive, success driven, and goal oriented. When they need assistance, they look for tangible aid and not reassurance or emotional support. On the other hand, a person with low self-efficacy sees problems and worries and thinks in terms of failing or not being able to do a high-quality job. Sam Walton, founder of

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FIGURE 4.9 Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Workplace Application Source: Adapted from Albert Bandura, “Regulation of Cognitive Processes through Perceived Self-Efficacy,” Developmental Psychology (September 1989): 729–35; Robert Wood and Albert Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management,” Academy of Management Review (July 1989): 361–84; and Robert Kreitner and Angelo Kinicki, Organizational Behavior (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1992), p. 90.

Sources of self-efficacy beliefs

Past and actual accomplishments

Feedback

High "I know I can complete the job on time and have outstanding quality."

Performance of others

Behavior patterns

Results

• Be assertive—select best opportunities • Manage the situation—avoid or neutralize obstacles • Set goals—establish standards • Plan, prepare, practice • Try hard; persevere • Creatively solve problems • Learn from setbacks • Visualize success

Success

• Be passive • Avoid difficult task • Develop weak aspirations and low commitment • Focus on personal deficiencies • Don't even try—make a weak effort • Quit or become discouraged because of setbacks • Blame setbacks on lack of ability or bad luck • Worry, experience stress, become depressed • Think of excuses for failing

Failure

Self-efficacy beliefs Social and selfpersuasion

Emotional state

Low "I don't think I can do the job on time and have outstanding quality."

Walmart, was an example of a person with a high self-efficacy belief that he could beat Sears, Kmart, and Target. He selected opportunities, and planned, visualized, and expressed how Walmart would succeed. His speeches and behaviors reveal a person with high self-efficacy.92 The organizational behavior implications of self-efficacy are numerous relating to such diverse areas as seasickness among military recruits to job search activities among unemployed workers. Self-efficacy’s role in motivation and task performance is obvious. A person high in self-efficacy is more motivated to perform at high levels of achievement. Self-efficacy may be important in terms of training employees to improve skills they believe are inadequate to perform well.93 Self-efficacy may also be a factor in feedback provided through performance evaluation programs. Individuals with high self-efficacy may respond to the identification of problem areas in a more aggressive, corrective but sometimes self-serving way than those employees low in self-efficacy.94 In addition, it has been suggested that self-efficacy is relevant to equal employment opportunity. Culture may have a significant effect on self-efficacy,95 and as a more diverse workforce enters the mainstream, this could become an important issue. Individuals with low self-efficacy could preserve internal barriers to advancement and become passive. The shortage of successful role models among minorities could create self-doubts about advancement. Perhaps efficacy training could help minority group members minimize the self-doubt barrier to success. Chapter 6 discusses self-efficacy in terms of motivation.

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Machiavellianism A term used to describe political maneuvers in an organization. Used to designate a person as a manipulator and power abuser.

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Machiavellianism Imagine yourself in the following situation with two other people: Thirty new $1 bills are on the table to be distributed in any way the group decides. The game is over as soon as two of you agree to how it will be divided. Obviously, the fairest distribution would be $10 each. However, a selfish party could cut out the third person, and the remaining two would each end up with $15. Suppose that one person suggests this alternative to you, and before you decide, the left-out person offers to give you $16, taking $14 as his or her share and cutting out the other person. What would you do? Machiavellianism, a concept derived from the writings of Italian philosopher and statesmen Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527), helps to answer the question. Machiavelli was concerned with the manipulation of people and with the orientations and tactics used by manipulators versus nonmanipulators.96 Machiavellianism (a term with negative connotations) is associated with being a political maneuverer and power manipulator. From anecdotal descriptions of power tactics and the nature of influential people, various scales have been constructed to measure Machiavellianism. One scale organizes questions around a cluster of beliefs about tactics, people, and morality. In the money allocation game just discussed, the individuals who get the lion’s share are those who score high on this scale, the LOW MACH scorers get only slightly less than would be expected by a fair, one-third split. In a job situation, Machiavellianism does seem to have an effect on job performance.97 HIGH MACH scorers would probably be suited for activities such as selling, negotiating, and acquiring limited resources. LOW MACH scorers would seem to be better suited for structured, routine, and nonemotional situations. They would seem to better suited for planning, conceptualizing, and working out details.98 Creativity Many organizations feel that creativity and innovativeness are not only desirable but also should be core competencies and a consistent feature of their cultures.99 Creativity is the generation of novel ideas that may be converted into commercial opportunities. It is the first step in the innovation process. Firms such as Google, Intuit, Novartis, E Ink, and IDEO demonstrate this very clearly by their support of creative activities by their employees.100 But it is also the case that creativity may be viewed in many ways.101 First, you may consider the creative person as mad. The madness of creative artists such as Van Gogh and Nijinsky is often cited as proof of this view. But research evidence offers no support for it. Instead, creative people have been found to have superior ego strength and handle problems constructively. Second, you can see the creative person as being disconnected from the art of creativity. Creativity in this view is a mystical act. Third, you can conclude that to be creative, a person must be intelligent. However, research shows that some intelligent people are creative while others aren’t.102 Finally, you can view creativity as a possibility open to every person, as an expression of personality that can be developed.103 This view and an increasing amount of research indicate that creativity can be taught. That is, individuals can learn to be creative.104 Many studies have examined creativity. Life histories, personality characteristics, and tests are often scrutinized to determine a person’s degree of creativity. In a typical test, subjects might be asked to examine a group of drawings and then answer what the drawings represent. Figure 4.10 is a line drawing test used to determine young children’s creativity.105 Novel and unusual answers are rated as being creative. Organizations can help develop creativity by106 1. Buffering. Managers can look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions. 2. Organizational time-outs. Give people time off to work on a problem and allow them to think things through.

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FIGURE 4.10

1

2

4

5

3

Testing Creativity Source: Adapted from T. Proctor, Creative Problem Solving for Managers (London: Routledge, 1999).

3. Intuition. Give half-baked or unsophisticated ideas a chance. 4. Innovative attitudes. Encourage everyone to think of ways to solve problems. 5. Innovative organizational structures. Let employees see and interact with many managers and mentors. Managerial interest in developing creativity seems worthwhile. A review of research findings indicates that creative individuals share important characteristics. They are selfconfident and motivated to succeed, they approach life enthusiastically, and they push on even when they must overcome obstacles.107 The idea that an inexperienced person can look at a problem and immediately be creative is a myth. Mozart was a child genius because he could do what other children couldn’t do. But he spent 10 years writing only average music before writing great music.108

Emotional Intelligence The psychologist Daniel Goleman introduced into the discussion of mental abilities the concept of emotional intelligence (EQ). A person’s EQ refers to the ability to accurately perceive, evaluate, express, and regulate emotions and feelings.109 Emotions are difficult to measure.110 However, Goleman and others suggest that these are five components of EQ: self-regulation, the ability calm down anxiety, control impulsiveness, and react appropriately to anger; motivation, a passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status; empathy, the ability to respond to the unspoken feelings of others; self-awareness, an awareness of one’s own personality or individuality; and social skill, a proficiency to manage relationships and build networks. Emotions are the result of a reaction to an object. Individuals display their emotions when they are happy about a promotion, sad about the loss of a contract for work, or angry about unfair treatment received from a manager. There are numerous emotions, but one way to classify them is to discuss positive and negative emotions. Researchers have classified six universal emotions: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, surprise, and disgust.111 When employees work or carry out job responsibilities, they often have to express organizationally required emotions. The flight attendant greeting passengers is working when he offers a “Hello, glad to have you aboard” greeting. He is expending emotional labor. Being attentive, happy, welcoming, and courteous are expected. On the other hand, a neurosurgeon is expected to be emotionally neutral or to not provide a scripted response. This, for many physicians, is another form of emotional labor or holding back on showing any positive or negative emotions, which could pose a dilemma: The physician is expected to not be emotional, but she is actually very upset about the patient’s prognosis. The felt versus displayed emotions difference creates a strain on the person.

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Emotional Contagion: A Lesson for the Emotionally Intelligent

Research has discovered that “feelings” can spread from one person to another. For example, an employee’s facial expression, posture, eye and head movement, and nervous leg movements are a form of transmission of emotional cues. There is now research that reports that mood can be transmitted from one person to another through voice inflection or emphasis on a particular word or phrase. Barsade examined the effect of emotional contagion within a group setting.

MOOD CONTAGION WITHIN GROUPS In her experiment, a trained actor was placed within the group and directed to participate in the group’s activities while enacting varying levels of pleasantness and energy. The group was working to assign a pay bonus; they had a fixed amount of money they could spend and had to allocate it based on a set of performance criteria. After the activities were completed, participants were asked to complete self-assessments of their mood. Results of the study clearly suggested that one group member’s emotions had an unconscious effect on the mood of the other group members. This held true both for “positive” and “negative” moods. There are different analyses of the effect of positional power and authority on mood contagion. It may be that those with authority and those who are either liked or respected have a greater effect. What is clear is that leaders affect the group mood: In a study of the influence of the contagion of mood of a group leader on group members, the positive mood of the leader positively influenced group members at both the individual and collective level with the opposite for leader negative mood. The leader’s positive mood also had a subsequent influence on group coordination and effort.

In proving that mood is contagious, one important consideration is the effect of mood on performance. Some believe the idea that “positive” moods have a positive effect on performance, but in reality sometimes a “negative” mood is appropriate. In the Barsade study, a negative group member seemed to disrupt the group and reduce efficacy, while having a positive confederate was associated with increased cooperation, fewer group conflicts, and heightened task performance. Likewise, in a similar study, Isen assessed radiologists, finding positive mood enhanced their accuracy. Positive mood has a far-reaching effect on work performance, supervision, decision making, and even on team members voluntarily acting for the good of the organization. Emotional contagion seems to play a role in the adaptive behavior of individuals to function in groups. This system can enable a rapid communication of opportunity and risk, mediate a group interaction, and help individuals attend to social rules and norms such as maintaining harmonious interaction with a powerful ally. The evidence that an individual’s feelings affect others— and that these feelings in turn affect performance—illustrates the importance of being aware of and managing emotions, especially for leaders. That is, having emotional intelligence can be helpful for leaders to monitor the ability of individuals to function effectively in a group. Sources: Adapted from Robert I. Sutton, “Are You Being a Jerk? Again?” Businessweek, August 14, 2008, p. 52; Sigal G. Barsade and Donald E. Gibson, “Why Does Affect Matter in Organizations?” Academy of Management Perspectives February 2007, pp. 36–59; Melissa Bayne and Joshua Freedman, “Emotional Contagion,” Six Seconds, accessed at www.6seconds.org on April 18, 2007; and A. Isan, “Positive Affect and Decision Making,” in M. Lewis and J. Haviland (eds.), The Handbook of Emotion (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).

Individuals who have difficulty smiling and appearing happy are likely to have career problems working in service organizations such as Disney, Nordstrom, Hyatt Regency, or TGIFs in the United States. However, smiling and cheeriness don’t always work the same way in other countries. For example, in Muslim cultures, a smile is interpreted as a sign of sexual attraction, so women learn not to smile at men.112 There are still many unanswered questions and criticisms about EQ research, such as how it affects performance, in what situations it is most important, how it can be measured reliably and validly, and whether training can improve a person’s EQ.113 Despite gaps in research results companies are paying attention to emotional intelligence. L’Oréal places more emphasis on hiring sales agents with emotional intelligence than on traditional technical sales attributes. The company found that sales agents with higher emotional intelligence scores sold approximately $91,000 more than colleagues with lower EQ scores.114 The OB at Work feature on emotional contagion suggests that a person with high EQ can use the concept of managing feelings and mood into work situations.

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The Psychological Contract

psychological contract An implied understanding of mutual contributions between a person and his or her organization.

When an individual accepts a job with an organization, an implied psychological contract is established. Because of differences in perception, attribution, attitudes, values, general personality, and emotions, individuals form a personal view of the expectations inherent in the psychological contract. The psychological contract is not a written document between a person and the organization; it is an implied understanding of mutual contributions.115 The individual has a perception of the reciprocal obligations he or she has with the organization. For example, employees may assume that if they work hard and display loyalty, the organization will provide good working conditions and job security. The psychological contact is a belief that promises have been made by the individual and the organization. Rousseau has proposed that psychological contracts lie along a continuum ranging from transitional to relational. A transitional contract is based on specific obligations and short time frames. The transactional contract uses financial resources as the primary means of exchange. They are focused self-interest. A relational contract is characterized by longterm relationship development. In organizations today, a variety of trends such as plan relocation, increased reliance on temporary workers, downsizing and layoffs, demographic diversity, and foreign competition are having a significant impact on how individuals and organizations evaluate their psychological contracts and their fulfillment.116 As environmental forces become more turbulent and the economy changes, it is likely that individual perception and attitudes about the obligation of organizations will continue to be problematic and uncertain.

Psychological Contract Violations psychological contract violation The perception of the person that his or her firm has failed to fulfill or has reneged on one or more obligations.

A psychological contract violation is defined as the perception of the person that his or her organization has failed to fulfill or has reneged on one or more obligations. As described by Morrison and Robinson,117 the perception has a cognitive portion and an emotional or feeling portion. A violation by an employer may affect not only the beliefs of the person but also what he or she feels obligated to provide or contribute to the organization. The majority of research on psychological contracts has not focused on violations of the perceived obligations among parties. Table 4.6 lists a number of possible organizational violations and offers quotes from the perspective of the employee. These types of violations of the psychological contract can seriously undermine the feelings of goodwill and trust held by employees toward the organization. The seven examples of violation in Table 4.6 indicate how trust is undermined, how the bond between an employer and employee can be weakened, and how perception plays a significant role in psychological contracts.118 Rousseau believes that violation of a relational contract can produce intense feelings that can result in moral outrage. Minor violations are not so intensely felt. However, a major violation could result in withholding good performance, sabotaging work, absenteeism, or quitting. A sequential pattern of responses to violations has been identified.119 The first response is voice: the person voices concern about the violation and attempts to restore the psychological contract. If unsuccessful, voice is followed by silence. Silence connotes compliance with what the employer wants or is doing, but with no commitment. Silence is followed by retreat, which is shown by negligence, shirking of responsibility, and passivity. Destruction can follow silence. In this stage the employee can retaliate through slowdown of work, sabotage, hiding papers or tools, theft, or even violence. Finally, of course the employee can exit or quit the firm. This discussion has focused on the psychological contract from the employee’s side. This is because most of the research and conjecture in the organizational behavior and

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TABLE 4.6 Psychological Contract Violations from Perceptions and Emotions of Individual Employees Violation

Definition

Employee Statement

Job security

No such thing as security, with good chance of layoff or downsizing.

“When I was recruited I heard on at least four occasions that we (the organization) had not laid off one person in 15 years. What a shock when six of my friends were let go.”

Child care benefits

Failing to provide adequate care and services for child care during working hours on- or offsite.

“The firm has refused to improve their skimpy child care benefits even though they brag about this every chance they have. I’m not sure they really care about children and working parents.”

Job feedback

Poor attention and little effort to provide meaningful job feedback.

“My boss skips through the feedback session and makes me feel like I am infringing on his time and space.”

Merit-based pay raises

No relationship between pay and actual performance.

“I see no effort to link what I do and how I do the job to my pay raises (when I receive them, which is rare).”

Job autonomy

Failure to permit the employee to have the freedom to make job-related decisions about how to perform the job.

“I feel like I am constantly watched and checked.”

Computer training

Failure to provide adequate training and coaching on the proper use of computers.

“I have been promised again and again the opportunity to undergo specific computer skills training. This is just not going to happen.”

Promotion

Reneging on a specific promise to provide a promotion for excellent performance.

“Time after time I am informed about my superior performance and promotion possibilities. This company just reneges and keeps on going like nothing has occurred.”

management literature are from the employee’s perspective. We need to increase our understanding and research from the employer’s perspective. There is also the need to examine individual, group, and organizational effectiveness in situations, settings, and projects where both employees and employers believe and perceive that the expectations of the psychological contract have been met. Are there unique attributes, techniques, or methods that have a high probability of the psychological contract being achieved? Managers need to be aware of the importance of the psychological contract in committing the employer and employees to a trusting and developing relationship over time.120 As this chapter has illustrated, how each person views the relationship can significantly vary because of individual differences. Thus, there is no easy method or formula to provide managers for improving their ability to effectively manage the multiple psychological contracts of individuals.

Summary of Key Points

• Employees joining an organization must adjust to a new environment, new people, and new tasks. How people adjust to situations and other people depends largely on their psychological makeup and personal backgrounds. • There’s no compelling evidence that men or women perform better. Some women are better salespeople than some men. On the other hand, some men are better caregivers than some women. Searching for similarities and differences is likely to continue, because historically the majority of organizationally based research has been conducted with male samples.

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• Individual perceptual processes help people face the realities of the world. People are influenced by other people and by situations, needs, and past experiences. While a manager is perceiving the employees, the employees are also perceiving the manager. • Attitudes are linked with behavioral patterns in a complex manner. They’re organized, and they provide the emotional basis for most of a person’s interpersonal relations. Changing attitudes is extremely difficult and requires, at the very least, trust in the communicator and strength of message. • Job satisfaction is the attitude workers have about their jobs. Research findings suggest that a satisfied worker isn’t necessarily a higher performer. • Personality, developed long before a person joins an organization, is influenced by hereditary, cultural, and social determinants. To assume that personality can be modified easily can result in managerial frustration and ethical problems. Managers should try to cope with personality differences among people and not try to change personalities to fit their model of the ideal person. • Personality variables, such as locus of control, self-efficacy, Machiavellianism, and creativity, are associated with behavior and performance. Although difficult to measure, these variables appear to be important personality facets in explaining and predicting individual behavior. • When a person joins and remains a part of an organization, an implied psychological contract is formed between the employee and the employer. • Violations of the psychological contract can create dramatic breaks in the relationship between employers and employees. Each person decides what is a minor or major violation of the psychological contract.

Discussion and Review Questions

1. Joan is an accountant who opposes the introduction of a new financial control system. For 15 years she has worked with the old manual system. Now the firm is introducing a new computer-based system. How would you attempt to change Joan’s attitude about the new system? 2. Some people believe that perception is a more important explanation of behavior than is reality. Why is this assumption about perception made? 3. Consider all of the topics covered in this chapter, which factors differentiate you the most from two or three of your co-workers? Describe. 4. The chapter focuses on the perspective of the employee in discussing the psychological contract. From the employer’s perspective, what is generally expected from employees in terms of the contract? 5. Why is emotional intelligence a difficult construct to measure accurately? 6. What is the relationship between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction? 7. In the selection of job candidates, what should a manager know about the self-efficacy concept? 8. Why is it accurate to conclude that the study and application of OB are multidisciplinary? 9. Is the “Big Five” model of personality worthwhile in terms of helping explain individual differences? 10. What’s the meaning of the notion that, even when differences between the sexes exist, there’s overlap between them? Explain this in terms of absenteeism rates and turnover rates.

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Individual Behavior and Differences

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Evaluating Online Self-Tests There are many self-test sites for providing immediate feedback at no expense to anyone taking time to take the test. These quick, concise, and informative self-reports are not intended to replace psychometrically derived and rigorous intelligence, personality, or job related tests. Queendom (www.queendom.com) is an excellent starting place to learn about self-tests to assess individual characteristics. Starting at Queendom, find two other similar sites that provide free self-tests with immediate feedback. Evaluate the quality of the three self-test sites. 1. Which site is the most complete? 2. Which site is the highest quality in presentation and interest? 3. How can the site be improved?

Case for Analysis: A Potter’s Wheel Bill Strickland’s life changed and began anew on a Wednesday afternoon in Pittsburgh in 1963. Strickland, then a 16-year-old African American, was bored with high school and felt hemmed in by life in this decaying neighborhood. Looking through a classroom door, Strickland saw something he had never seen before: a rotating mound of clay being shaped into a vessel by a man absorbed in his work. He stated, “I saw a radiant and hopeful image of how the world ought to be. It opened up a portal that suggested that there might be a whole range of possibilities and experiences that I had not explored.” Strickland walked into the classroom introduced himself to ceramics teacher Frank Ross, the man at the potter’s wheel, and said, “I’d like to learn whatever that is.” Ross became his mentor, and Strickland took an entirely new path in life that led to earning a college degree. Today Strickland applies his potter’s hands and is involved in social change. People work with him and come to his programs at the Manchester Craftsmen Guild (MCG) and at the Bidwell Training Center Inc. For nearly three decades, Strickland has worked at his craft back in the same Pittsburgh neighborhood he grew up in—creating a model for turning people with dead-end lives into productive workers. The source of Strickland’s unique gift is, according to him, that Wednesday afternoon in 1963. “You start with the perception that the

world is an unlimited opportunity. Then the question becomes, how are we going to rebuild the planet?” Strickland has brought all of his talents, aspirations, and thinking as an artist and applied them to make a change in the neighborhood where he lives. The use of art to change students’ attitudes is at the heart of Strickland’s vision of education. The goal is not to produce artists or potters. It’s to find an individually tailored approach to learning that will redirect young people who are searching for goals and get them interested in education. Strickland’s story and life provide an example of how each person is unique. His background environment certainly had an impact on his individual characteristics. Strickland speaks with a moral authority that should ring true with struggling college students.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What environmental factors could Bill Strickland have changed in his life? 2. What moral authority does Bill Strickland speak from to struggling college students? 3. What impact did Strickland’s mentor (Frank Ross) have on his goals, self-efficacy, and values? Sources: Sara Terry, “Genius at Work,” Fast Company, September 1998, pp. 171–83; and Michael Warsaw, “Have You Got the Right Stuff?” Fast Company, October 1998, pp. 219–25.

Experiential Exercise: Applying Attribution Theory OBJECTIVES

RELATED TOPICS

1. To examine the cause of a person’s behavior. 2. To develop an approach that’s best suited to improve unacceptable behavior.

The concept of perception plays a role in how each of us views other people. Making attributions in terms ofdispositional or situational factors is based on how a

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person views the event, the behaviors of another person, and previous experience.

STARTING THE EXERCISE Carefully read the following situation facing a manager. If you were this manager, what would you conclude about causes and how would you proceed? Why?

THE LOSS OF EQUALITY Don Dubose has worked for Maybrooke Manufacturing since its beginning in 1964. He has won four top performer awards during his tenure in the firm. The last award he won was presented to him with a $5,000 bonus check about three years ago. But in the past 18 months, Don’s relations with co-workers have become strained. He has never been talkative, but on occasion he has ordered coworkers out of his work area. Don has made it clear that tools have been missing, and he wants to protect his area. His work’s quality has also suffered. Until about a year ago, Don’s work producing generators was at the “zerodefect” level. Error-free, top-quality generators came from Don again and again. Today when random sample checks are made, Don occasionally produces generators that must be reworked less than 3 percent of the time. He has gone from zero defects to 3 out of 100 defects. His co-workers average about 1.5 defects out of 100 for reworking. What could be causing Don’s behavior changes? They could be caused by: [1 2 3 Not very likely 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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Low motivation 1 Low self-efficacy 1 Physical health problems 1 Family problems 1 Poor management 1 Lack of creativity 1

2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3

4

4 4 4 4 4 4

5

5 5 5 5 5 5

6 7] Very likely 6 6 6 6 6 6

7 7 7 7 7 7

Comment on each of your ratings: 1. __________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________

Don’s behavior has become a topic of concern within the organization. An outstanding worker has become average. What actions would you take as the manager? Transfer Don to a new job.

Yes No Why? —— —— ———

Fire Don.

—— —— ———

Call Don in to discuss your observation.

—— —— ———

Suspend Don after informing him about your concerns.

—— —— ———

Ask Don’s co-workers why they believe his performance isn’t up to previous norms.

—— —— ———

Leave the situation alone for another six months.

—— —— ———

Contact Don’s wife to see if there’s a personal reason for the performance problem.

—— —— ———

Examine your own behavior (as manager) in working with Don. —— —— ——— Send Don to a human resource management counselor to discuss his attitudes about his job.

—— —— ———

Promote Don since he has been in the present job over six years.

—— —— ———

Other courses of action: ________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________

IN CLASS After you’ve analyzed this situation, meet with classmates to discuss their reactions. What did you learn about your attributions process? Are your reactions different from your classmates’?

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F I V E

Motivation: Background and Theories

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 5, you should be able to Define Motivation in practical terms that would be meaningful to managers in organizations. Differentiate Between the content and process theories of motivation. Describe How equity theory can explain employees’ reactions to pay and compensation decisions. Discuss Why an individual’s needs and preferences will change over the course of his or her work career. Explain The motivational force for a behavior, action, or task as a function of three distinct perceptions made by an individual.

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Motivating Generations of Employees Managers have to be excellent at addressing the needs and goals of individual employees. There is no one motivational approach that works for everyone. As motivation theories suggest, individuals differ in their desired rewards, how they attempt to satisfy their needs, and how they view the fairness of what managers attempt to do for them and the work environment. Four specific generations exist in the workplace. Each generation has its own style, preference, and core values. A starting point in designing motivational systems is to be aware of key generational similarities and differences. For example, Veterans(orWorldWarIIgeneration), born between 1922 and 1945, believe in hard work, dedication, sacrifice, and respect for authority. With the youngest of this generation being in their mid-60s, these individuals contain a great deal of organizational knowledge and remain very influential. Baby boomers, or those born between 1946 and 1964, are characterized by their optimism, work ethic, teamwork, healthy lifestyles, and personal gratification. These individuals are often willing to “go the extra mile” at work to get the job done and enjoy their work and careers. GenXers, who were born between 1965 and 1976, understand the importance of diversity, work/life balance, self-reliance, fun, and informality. More cynical than any other generation, their “it’s only a job” attitude places them in direct conflict with the boomers. The next big influx of workers is coming from Gen Y (a.k.a., Millennials,), who were born between 1977 and 1997. Surveys, focus groups, and research suggest that these are some of the workplace preferences of Gen Y members: • • • • • • • • •

A fair boss. Team-oriented. Belief in the company. Safety in the workplace. Work that is meaningful. Training and learning opportunities. Flexibility in work schedule. Constructive and frequent feedback. Timely and fair reward systems.

Ready or not, managers will have to face these millions of new employees in their twenties and early thirties. Knowing the nuances of generational differences before addressing the challenging issue of individual differences is a recommended step in creating a high-motivation work environment. Veterans, baby boomers, Gen Xers, and Gen Yers working side by side make the motivation job complicated. There likely are more similarities than differences across generations. However, paying attention to the specific needs of employees and how these employees sustain high performance is a part of the responsibilities of managers and leaders. It is now a seller’s market for talent. Making employees comfortable, satisfied, and compatible with an organization so that talent is retained is an indicator of managerial competence. Sources: Bruce Tulgan, “Managing in the ‘New’ Workplace,” Financial Executive, December 1, 2009, pp. 50–53; James Chen, “Playing the Generation Game in Asia,” The British Journal of Administrative Management (April/May 2007) 28–29; Lynne C. Lancaster and David Stillman, When Generations Collide: Who They Are. Why They Clash.How to Solve the Generational Puzzle at Work (New York: HarperBusiness, 2003); Ron Zemke, “Here Come the Millennials,” Training, July 2001; Ned Howe, Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation (New York: Vintage Press, 2000); Claire Raines, Generations at Work: Managing the Clash of Veterans, Boomers, Xers, and Nexters (New York: AMACOM, 2000); and Bruce Tulgan, Winning the Talent Wars (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).

Why some employees perform better than others is a continual and perplexing problem facing managers. To explain such differences, several interesting and important variables have been used—for example, cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, personality, and

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aspiration levels, as well as demographic factors such as age, education, and family background. However, one issue that consistently captures the attention of managers and researchers alike is the motivation of people to perform their work. In fact, much of management’s time is spent addressing the motivation of their employees.1 The opening vignette emphasizes that this time investment is necessary because of the many differences that exist across individual employees and generations. By understanding what motivates employees, managers are in a better position to encourage and reward employees and groups to behave in effective ways. Despite its obvious importance, motivation is difficult to define and to analyze. By one definition, motivation has to do with (1) the direction of behavior, (2) the strength of the response (i.e., effort) once an employee chooses to follow a course of action, and (3)the persistence of the behavior, or how long the person continues to behave in a particular manner.2 Another view suggests that the analysis of motivation should concentrate on the factors that incite and direct a person’s activities.3 One theorist emphasizes the goal-directedness aspect of motivation.4 Another states that motivation is“concerned with how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, and is stopped, and what kind of subjective reaction is present in the organism while all this is going on.”5 A careful examination of each of these views leads to several conclusions about motivation: 1. Theorists present slightly different interpretations and place emphasis on different factors. 2. Motivation is related to behavior and performance. 3. Goal-directedness is involved. 4. It results from events and processes that are internal or external to the individual. 5. Research on motivation is still evolving, and many aspects of human motivation are still unexplained. Motivating employees was an important topic as far back as 1789. Samuel Slater, a pioneer who introduced textile manufacturing to America, was concerned about creating a work setting where it was comfortable for workers to do their jobs. Other efforts to create a positive motivational work climate ranged from George M. Pullman’s company town to Henry Ford’s profit-sharing plan. The Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Boston provided tennis courts and bowling alleys. Other firms planted gardens for workers or constructed libraries and athletic facilities. One reason for corporate generosity was fear of the trade union movement, but there were other motivators. Another reason was greed—the desire to get employees to work harder for less money. Another was humanitarianism, the willingness to treat employees well. And some corporate leaders believed it was simply good business to satisfy workers’ needs for good working conditions, a fair day’s pay, and social interaction. Two of the most radical experiments in creating a positive work environment occurred in the late 1800s. Disturbed by reports of worker resentment and sabotage, John H. Patterson, founder of the National Cash Register (NCR) Company in 1884,6 investigated working conditions himself and found that there was little to motivate employees to achieve or even strive toward doing an adequate job. In response he increased wages, cleaned up the shop floor, improved safety, made company showers and dressing rooms available, and opened a company cafeteria that served hot lunches at reduced rates. NCR provided free medical care at its dispensary, gave additional food to those felt to be underweight, and redesigned the factory buildings to allow in natural light. Patterson also instituted industry’s first paid “suggestion” system and provided opportunities for employees to take

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classes at a company-sponsored night school. These innovations helped to cut turnover and increase productivity and were a significant factor behind NCR’s dominance in the cash register business for many years.7 Similarly, at the Pullman Company, George Pullman built a company town with houses to rent, stores, schools, a church, and a company plant.8 He wanted to provide his employees with a feeling of community, a place of employment, and opportunities to practice religion and educate their children. However, when the national economy slid into a depression, events in Pullman, Illinois, turned sour. Pullman cut his workers’ wages without lowering rents or prices in the town. What started as an experiment to help workers satisfy various needs eventually spurred workers into attempting to organize a union. Pullman’s workers went on strike on May 12, 1894, riots occurred, and federal troops were called in to restore order.9 Both of these situations reflect efforts by management to influence the motivation of the workforce, with varying levels of success. Since that time, researchers have learned much about motivation, and managers need to consider these insights when attempting to create positive motivational atmospheres for their employees. No matter what their nationality or cultural background, people are driven to fulfill needs and to achieve goals. But what are those needs, what goals are desired, and what can motivate people in different countries? This is the complex and difficult-to-answer question. For example, motivational structures among Americans and Japanese need to take into consideration cultural differences that affect attitudes about money, work, incentives, teamwork, and performance reviews.10 The Japanese tend to confer recognition for excellent performance with plaques, applause, and attention. Japanese employees are likely to be insulted by material incentives because this form of reward suggests they could work even harder. In Japanese firms, bonuses are given because of seniority, gender, and marital status. In examining each of the motivation theories, remember that cultural differences could be significant and need to be considered. Motivation is a universal concept that must be aligned with the context and cultural background. What proves to be an extremely powerful motivator in one setting or country may be a miserable failure in another setting or nation. Motivation is the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within an individual to initiate and direct behavior. We use the concept to explain differences in the intensity of behavior (regarding more intense behaviors as the result of higher levels of motivation) and also to indicate the direction of behavior (e.g., when you’re tired or sleepy, you direct your behavior toward getting some sleep).

What Is Motivation? motivation Forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behavior.

Motivation is an explanatory concept that we use to make sense out of the behaviors we observe. In other words, motivation is inferred. Instead of measuring it directly, we note what conditions exist and observe behavior, using this information as a basis for our understanding of the underlying motivation. For example, you might assume that your friend works overtime because she needs the additional pay. But your inference isn’t correct; your friend is actually doing the additional work to help out her boss and because she is fascinated by the specific project in which she is involved. The lesson is clear: we must always be cautious in making motivational inferences. As more and more information is accumulated, however, our inferences should become more accurate because we can eliminate alternative explanations.

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One reason our understanding of motivation is important is that high levels of motivation are significant contributors to exceptional performance. Managers prefer highly motivated employees because they strive to find the best way to perform their jobs. They want to come to work and be part of a team; they’re interested in helping, supporting, and encouraging coworkers. Self-confident and decisive employees display these and other desirable actions. However, finding a universal set of principles to motivate employees and managers isn’t likely to occur, as there is no one approach that works best. Harvard Business School publishes and circulates thousands of business cases worldwide. The most requested and purchased case is about Lincoln Electric Company of Cleveland. Founded in 1895, the firm produces industrial electric motors and welding products, and it has 39 factories and joint ventures in 19 countries. 11 The Lincoln Electric case is so popular because it illustrates how the company motivates workers. All of Lincoln’s 2,000 employees participate in the firm’s pay incentive plan. This plan has been a success for decades because it clearly links pay and pay increases to performance.12 Lincoln employees receive piece-rate (each piece or product produced results in payment) wages with no guaranteed minimum hourly wage. After two years of employment workers can participate in the year-end bonus plan (one-time lump-sum payment tied to performance). Determined by a formula that considers the firm’s gross profits, the employees’ base piece rate, and merit rating, Lincoln calculates a bonus system. The average bonus over five decades has been approximately 95 percent of the average wage. Every six months, the chief executive officer personally reviews each employee’s merit ratings. Everyone is rated on output, quality, dependability, and cooperation. Lincoln pays attention to performance, linking pay to performance and the quality of its products. The company has never faced a strike. It has no debt. It believes that success is based on individual accountability and the power of creating a positive motivational atmosphere. As each of the motivation theories in the next two chapters are presented, refer back to the simplicity and popularity of Lincoln Electric’s approach to motivation.13

The Starting Point: The Individual

need Deficiency that an individual experiences at a particular point in time.

Managers are expected to understand the existing types and degrees of motivation in their employees and must also try to enhance the extent of motivation demonstrated in a diverse and in many respects unpredictable group of people. This diversity results in different behavioral patterns that in some manner are related to needs and goals. A need is a deficiency or lack of something of value that an individual experiences at a particular point in time. Deficiencies may be physiological (e.g., a need for food), psychological (e.g., a need for self-esteem), or sociological (e.g., a need for social interaction). Needs are energizers or triggers of behavioral responses. The implication is that when needs (deficiencies) are present, the individual will seek to fulfill those needs and may be more susceptible to managers’ motivational efforts. In any discussion of motivation, the importance of goals is apparent. The motivational process, as interpreted by most theorists, is goal directed. The goals, or outcomes, an employee seeks are viewed as forces that attract the person. Accomplishing desired goals can result in a significant reduction in need deficiencies. As Figure 5.1 shows, people have need deficiencies, which trigger a search process for ways to reduce the tension they cause. A course of action is selected, and goal-directed

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FIGURE 5.1 The Motivational Process: An Initial Model I Need deficiences "I want to perform well to earn the promotion."

II Search for ways to satisfy needs

VI Need deficiencies reassessed by the employee

"I need to show my manager that I want the promotion—work on tough assignments, work extra hours, help co-workers."

"I still want the promotion. I've got to try another approach."

The employee V Rewards or punishments

III Goal-directed behavior

"Received recognition award; granted the opportunity to attend training program."

"The promotion."

IV Performance (evaluation of goals accomplished) "Highest ratings on quantity, quality, and cost containment."

behavior occurs. After a period of time, managers assess that behavior. Performance evaluation will result in rewards or punishments. Such outcomes are weighed by the person, and need deficiencies are reassessed. This in turn triggers the process, and the circular pattern begins again.

Motivational Theories: A Classification System Each person is attracted to some set of goals. To predict behavior with any accuracy, a manager must know something about an employee’s goals and about the actions that the employee has to take to achieve them. Numerous motivation theories and research findings attempt to explain this behavior–outcome relationship.

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TABLE 5.1 Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation Theoretical Base

Theoretical Explanation

Founders of the Theories

Managerial Application

Content

Focuses on factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior. These factors can only be inferred.

Maslow—five-level need hierarchy. Alderfer—three-level hierarchy (ERG). Herzberg—two major factors called hygiene-motivators. McClelland—three learned needs acquired from the culture: achievement, affiliation, and power.

Managers need to be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique in many ways.

Process

Describes, explains, and analyzes how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped.

Vroom—an expectancy theory of choices. Adams—equity theory based on comparisons that individuals make. Skinner—reinforcement theory concerned with the learning that occurs as a consequence of behavior. Locke—goal-setting theory that conscious goals and intentions are the determinants of behavior.

Managers need to understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments.

content motivation theories Theories that focus on factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior.

process motivation theories Theories that describe and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped by external factors.

Theories of motivation fall into two categories: content theories and process theories. Content theories focus on the factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior. They attempt to determine the specific needs that motivate people. Process theories describe and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped by factors primarily external to the person. Both categories have important implications for managers, who by the nature of their jobs are involved with the motivational process. Table 5.1 summarizes the basic characteristics of content and process theories of motivation from a managerial perspective. This chapter covers some of the most publicized content theories (need hierarchy, ERG, two-factor, and learned needs) and introduces two process theories (expectancy and equity) of motivation, while the next chapter discusses several organizational applications of motivation theories. The content theories focus on individual needs in explaining job satisfaction, worker behavior, and reward systems. The theories suggest that within a person, individual need deficiencies activate tensions that trigger a behavioral response. For managers to be effective, the content theories suggest that they must 1. Determine what needs trigger desired performance, group, and personal behaviors. 2. Be able to offer meaningful rewards that help the employee satisfy needs.

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3. Know when to offer appropriate rewards to optimize performance behavior. 4. Not assume that a person’s need deficiencies will repeat themselves in a regular pattern. People change because of experiences, life events, aging, cultural and environmental changes, and other factors. Maslow’s need hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s learned needs theory are four important content theories of motivation.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy need hierarchy model Maslow’s theory assumes that people’s needs depend on what they already have. In a sense, then, a satisfied need is not a motivator. Human needs, organized in a hierarchy of importance, are physiological safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

One of the most widely cited and discussed motivation theories is the need hierarchy model proposed by Abraham Maslow.14 The lowest-level needs are the physiological needs, and the highest-level needs are for self-actualization. Maslow defined human needs as 1. Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain. 2. Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; that is, the security from threatening events or surroundings. 3. Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love. 4. Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others. 5. Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential. Maslow’s theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs (physiological) before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs (self-actualization). Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need such as self-actualization begins to control a person’s behavior. According to Maslow, a satisfied need ceases to motivate. When a person decides that she’s earning enough pay for contributing to the organization, money loses its power to motivate. One way in which this theory may be of use to managers is in suggesting strategies that the organization can implement to correct need deficiencies. These deficiencies can occur at all levels but are likely to be largest in the areas of self-actualization and esteem—needs that are often ignored in the reward structures of many organizations. Attempts to address these deficiencies may actually have a greater impact in initiating and directing behavior than focusing on lower-level needs that may be closer to fulfillment. In addition to dealing with individual differences in needs, managers face the issue that needs, work style, and work ethics may differ across cultures. Americans are sometimes perceived by foreigners as lazy and not motivated. The problem often boils down not to laziness but to conflict between culturally different patterns of job behavior, management styles, and work’s role in employees’ lives.15 For example, Americans are more “job” oriented than “company” oriented. It is common to see Americans move from organization to organization as they “build their resumes” and develop their career-related skills and experiences. Also, many Americans try to maintain a balance between work and home responsibilities and interests. In China, Japan, India, and some other cultures, work takes on a more central role as individuals attempt to achieve higher levels of economic success and a more comfortable standard of living.

Selected Need Hierarchy Research A number of research studies have tested the need hierarchy theory. The first reported field research that tested a modified version of Maslow’s need hierarchy was by Lyman W. Porter.16

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Initially, he assumed that physiological needs were being adequately satisfied for managers, so he substituted a higher-order need called autonomy, defined as the person’s satisfaction with opportunities to make independent decisions, set goals, and work without close supervision. Since the early Porter studies, other studies have reported that 1. Managers high in the organization chain of command place greater emphasis on selfactualization and autonomy.17 2. Managers at lower organizational levels in small firms with less than 500 employees are more satisfied than their counterparts in large firms with more than 5,000 employees. But managers at upper levels in large companies are more satisfied than their counterparts in small companies.18 3. American managers overseas are more satisfied with autonomy opportunities than are their counterparts working in the United States.19 In general, Maslow’s theory hasn’t been supported by field research.20 Maslow himself stated that self-actualization theory in and of itself isn’t enough, as the assumptions must be amplified into a more thorough formulation, taking into account such factors as the good of other people and the organization as a whole.21 Therefore, we don’t recommend using the theory to predict behavior. The hierarchy does explain aspects of human behavior in our society. But it’s not accurate or thorough enough to explain individuallevel behavior.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer agrees with Maslow that individuals’ needs are arranged in a hierarchy. However, his proposed needs hierarchy involves only three sets of needs:22 1. Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions. 2. Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships. 3. Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.

ERG theory of motivation Theory developed and tested by Alderfer that categorizes needs as existence, relatedness, and growth.

Alderfer’s three needs—existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G), or ERG— correspond to Maslow’s in that the existence needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety categories; the relatedness needs are similar to the belongingness, social, and love category; and the growth needs are similar to the esteem and self-actualization categories. In addition to a difference in the number of categories, Alderfer’s ERG theory of motivation and Maslow’s need hierarchy differ on how people move through the different sets of needs. Maslow proposed that unfulfilled needs at one level are of most importance and that the needs on the next higher level aren’t activated or triggered until the currently important needs are adequately satisfied. Thus, a person only progresses up the need hierarchy once his lower-level needs have been effectively met. In contrast, Alderfer’s ERG theory suggests that in addition to the satisfaction–progression process that Maslow proposed, a frustration– regression process is also at work. That is, if a person is continually frustrated in attempts to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge as a major motivating force, causing the individual to redirect efforts toward exploring new ways to satisfy this lower-order need category. Figure 5.2 presents Alderfer’s ERG theory. Consider the case of Mary Higgins, a registered nurse in the pediatric unit in Methodist Hospital in Tampa, Florida. A single parent, Mary is concerned with job security, pay, and co-worker interaction and friendship. She must work to support her family, and she also

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FIGURE 5.2 ERG Theory Relationships among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of Needs Source: F. J. Landy and D. A. Trumbo, Psychology of Work Behavior, rev. ed. (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1980); and, I. Borg and M. Braun, “Work Values in East and West Germany: Different Weights, But Identical Structures,” Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 17, 1996. pp. 541–55.

Examples of Needs

Needs Fulfillment Cycle

Interesting work with good chances for advancement

Growth Needs:

Job is meaningful and offers contact with co-workers, customers, etc.

Relatedness Needs:

Secure position with safe working conditions and high pay.

Existence Needs:

Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction

Frustration-Regression Process

If growth needs can't be satisfied, then a person can remain motivated by refocusing on meeting lower-level relatedness needs.

Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction If relatedness needs can't be satisfied, then a person can remain motivated by refocusing on meeting lower-level existence needs. Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction

enjoys the social aspect of work. Her performance is outstanding, and she has satisfied her existence and relatedness needs. A head nurse position becomes available in intensive care, a position that would help meet Mary’s needs for growth and personal development. But two other candidates have more experience plus outstanding performance records in intensive care. Mary is dropped from further consideration for this job and becomes frustrated, disappointed, and concerned about her future. Maria Herrera, her supervisor, explains to Mary why she’s not being considered, assuring her that other opportunities will occur and that her value to other pediatric nurses is immeasurable. In fact, Maria and three co-workers take Mary to dinner to talk with her. This seems to help Mary refocus her attention on the positive aspects of work, and after a few days of feeling frustrated, she again seems to enjoy her work and her colleagues. Mary has redirected her need for the promotion and the growth it would provide back to the relatedness category. The ERG theory implies that individuals are motivated to engage in behavior to satisfy one of the three sets of needs. Alderfer’s explanation of motivation provides an interesting suggestion to managers about behavior. If a subordinate’s higher-order needs (e.g., growth) are being blocked, perhaps because of a company policy or lack of resources, then it’s in the manager’s best interest to attempt to redirect the subordinate’s efforts toward relatedness or existence needs.

ERG: Limited Research Base The ERG theory hasn’t stimulated many research studies. Thus, empirical verification is difficult to claim for the ERG explanation. Salancik and Pfeffer proposed that need models such as Maslow’s and Alderfer’s have become popular because they’re consistent with other theories of rational choice and because they attribute freedom to individuals. The idea that individuals shape their actions to satisfy unfulfilled needs gives purpose and direction to individual activity. Furthermore, need explanations are also popular, despite little research verification, because they’re simple, easily expressed views of human behavior.23 Must need theories be verifiable to be of value to a manager?24 Or are managers and practitioners less impressed by research-verified explanations than by simple, commonsense explanations?

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Alderfer certainly didn’t accept Salancik and Pfeffer’s critique of need explanations of motivation.25 He proposed that available research evidence supported at least the conceptualization of the ERG theory. Other evidence to support portions of the ERG theory has been added to the literature since his debate with Salancik and Pfeffer. One study examined the ERG theory of motivation with regard to the human life cycle, using Levinson’s theory of life-cycle development, which includes seven stages (e.g., early adult transition, 18–22 years old; midlife transition, 40–45 years old).26 Some of the results indicated that (1) individuals whose parents achieved higher educational levels had significantly higher scores for strength of desire for growth, and (2) men had higher scores for strength of existence needs and lower scores for strength of relatedness than did women. In another study of ERG theory, researchers collected data from 208 employees working in 13 different jobs in a telephone company.27 In general, the ERG categories were supported. Relatively few individuals (17 out of 208) in this study reported high growth-need satisfaction when satisfaction of relatedness and existence needs was either moderate or low. Also, an examination of how pay can satisfy a variety of needs supported the three need categories proposed by Alderfer.28 Much work still needs to be done, however, before the ERG theory’s value in work settings can be confirmed.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation View that job satisfaction results from the presence of intrinsic motivators and that job dissatisfaction stems from not having extrinsic factors.

Psychologist and management consultant Frederick Herzberg developed the two-factor content theory of motivation.29 The two factors are the dissatisfiers-satisfiers, the hygienemotivators, or the extrinsic–intrinsic factors, depending on who’s discussing the theory. The original research testing this theory included a group of 200 accountants and engineers. Herzberg used interview responses to questions such as, “Can you describe, in detail, when you felt exceptionally good about your job?” and “Can you describe, in detail, when you felt exceptionally bad about your job?” Rarely were the same kinds of experiences categorized as both good and bad. This systematic procedure resulted in the development of two distinct kinds of experiences: satisfiers and dissatisfiers. Herzberg’s initial study resulted in two specific conclusions. First, there’s a set of extrinsic conditions, the job context. They include pay, status, and working conditions. The presence of these conditions to the satisfaction of the employee doesn’t necessarily motivate him, but their absence results in dissatisfaction. Because they’re needed to maintain at least a level of “no dissatisfaction,” the extrinsic conditions are called the dissatisfiers, or hygiene, factors. Second, a set of intrinsic conditions, the job content, is also present. These conditions include feelings of achievement, increased responsibility, and recognition. The absence of these conditions doesn’t prove highly dissatisfying. But when present, they build strong levels of motivation that result in good job performance. Therefore, they’re called the satisfiers, or motivators. Prior to Herzberg’s work, people studying motivation viewed job satisfaction as a unidimensional concept. That is, they placed job satisfaction at one end of a continuum and job dissatisfaction at the other end of the same continuum. If a job condition caused job satisfaction, removing it would cause dissatisfaction; similarly, if a job condition caused job dissatisfaction, removing it would cause job satisfaction. Herzberg’s model basically assumes that job satisfaction isn’t a unidimensional concept. His research leads to the conclusion that two continua are needed to interpret job satisfaction correctly. Figure 5.3 illustrates the two different views of job satisfaction.

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FIGURE 5.3

I. Traditional

Traditional and Herzberg Views of SatisfactionDissatisfaction

High job dissatisfaction

High job satisfaction

II. Herzberg's two-factor view Low job satisfaction

High job satisfaction

Motivators • Feeling of achievement • Meaningful work • Opportunities for advancement • Increased responsibility • Recognition • Opportunities for growth

High job dissatisfaction

Low job dissatisfaction Hygiene factors • Pay • Status • Job security • Working conditions • Fringe benefits • Policies and procedures • Interpersonal relations

Referring to Figure 5.3, several important managerial implications of Herzberg’s twofactor theory are apparent: 1. Low job dissatisfaction, high job satisfaction: An employee who is paid well, has job security, has good relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are present 5 low job dissatisfaction), and is given challenging duties for which he or she is accountable will be motivated. Managers should continue to assign challenging tasks and transfer accountability to high performing subordinates. Pay raises, job security, and good supervision need to be continued. 2. Low job dissatisfaction, low job satisfaction: An employee who is paid well, has job security, has good relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are present 5 low job dissatisfaction) but is not given any challenging assignments and is very bored with his or her job (motivators are absent 5 no job satisfaction) will not be motivated. Managers should reevaluate subordinate’s job description and enlarge it by providing more challenging and interesting assignments. Pay raises, job security, and good supervision need to be continued. 3. High job dissatisfaction, low job satisfaction: An employee who is not paid well, has little job security, has poor relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are not present 5 high job dissatisfaction) and is not given any challenging assignments and is very bored with his/her job (motivators are absent 5 low job satisfaction) will not be motivated. To prevent low performance, absenteeism, and turnover, managers should make drastic changes by adding hygiene factors and motivators.

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Critique of Herzberg’s Theory Of all the available content theories, we believe the most criticized is Herzberg’s. Several reasons account for this. First, the theory was originally based on a sample of American accountants and engineers. Critics ask whether this limited sample can justify generalizing to other occupational groups and to other countries. The technology, environment, and background of the two occupational groups are distinctly different from those of other groups, such as nurses, medical technologists, salespeople, computer programmers, clerks, and police officers.30 Second, some researchers believe that Herzberg’s work oversimplifies the nature of job satisfaction, leading to the assumption that a manager can easily change hygiene factors or satisfiers and thus produce job satisfaction. This, of course, isn’t an accurate view of how complex and difficult motivation and job satisfaction are in terms of workplace manipulation. Other critics focus on Herzberg’s methodology because it requires people to look at themselves retrospectively. Can people be aware of all that motivated or dissatisfied them? These critics believe subconscious factors aren’t identified in Herzberg’s analysis. Also, the “recency of events” bias of being able to recall one’s most recent job conditions and feelings better than those occurring in the past is embedded in the methodology.31 Another criticism of Herzberg’s work is that little attention is directed toward testing the theory’s performance implications.32 In the original study, only self-reports of performance were used, and in most cases, respondents were reporting on job activities that had occurred over a long period. Herzberg has offered no explanation as to why the various extrinsic and intrinsic job factors should affect performance. When the available evidence is reviewed, it’s surprising that Herzberg’s theory has withstood the test of time. The two-factor theory, not even mentioned by many academic researchers, remains popular with managers, who continue to discuss the theory and attempt to increase motivation by using Herzberg’s identified motivators.33 His theory spells out specific job factors that managers can work with to create a motivational atmosphere. (Job factors are discussed in more detail in Chapter 13 on job design.) Herzberg’s theory brings out clearly the differences in perspectives held by practicing managers and academics. Instead of taking sides, we believe that Herzberg’s explanation will continue to be cited and used by managers in the United States and around the world.34 Of course, care must be utilized in applying this or any other theory in international settings, as one study suggests that Herzberg’s theory may have applied to a British sample but not to one from Nigeria.35 However, the general perception of this theory is that it warrants discussion and consideration as a potential applied approach to motivation.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory learned needs theory Theory that proposes that a person with a strong need will be motivated to use appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need. A person’s needs are learned from the culture of a society.

David C. McClelland has proposed a learned needs theory of motivation closely associated with learning concepts. He believes that many needs are acquired from the culture of a society.36 Three of these learnedneeds are the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for affiliation (n Aff), and the need for power (n Pow). McClelland suggested that when a need is strong in a person, its effect is to motivate her to use behavior leading to its satisfaction. For example, a worker with a high n Ach would set challenging goals, work hard to achieve the goals, and use skills and abilities to achieve them. How are these needs such as n Ach measured? It’s not enough to assume that those who work hard and long have a need for achievement, while those who work slowly or in spurts

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Projective test that uses a person’s analysis of pictures to evaluate such individual differences as need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation.

don’t. To assess individual differences in the three proposed needs, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is used.37 A person is shown pictures and asked to write a story about what he sees portrayed in them. For example, a picture would be presented to a respondent. The picture, which is somewhat vague, is of a man who appears to be working at a desk while looking at a small picture on his desk with three vague figures in it. The respondent is then asked to describe what the entire picture illustrates. People tend to write stories that reflect their dominant needs. For example, individuals with high or dominant achievement typically write a story that reflects this need: maybe that the man at the desk is working long hours and misses his family but nonetheless remains at work to complete an important project. Evaluators reviewing a response to such a picture would search the written stories for recurring themes of hard work, extra effort, gratification received from success, and the setting of challenging goals as indications of a high need for achievement. McClelland believes that achievement, affiliation, and power needs can be inferred from the stories a person writes about a number of such pictures. He states, If you want to understand motives behind . . . actions, find out what’s on a person’s mind. If you want to find out what’s on a person’s mind, don’t ask him, because he can’t always tell you accurately. Study his fantasies and dreams. If you do this over a period of time, you will discover the themes to which his mind returns again and again. And these themes can be used to explain his actions.38

McClelland proposes that a society’s economic growth is based on the level of need achievement inherent in its population39 and that economically backward nations can be dramatically improved by stimulating the need for achievement in the populace. If McClelland is correct (and some research supports his theory), his approach could have a significant effect on motivation in general, especially in countries where free market economies are beginning to evolve. He also contends that motivation can be taught in organizational and nonorganizational settings.40

Research on Learned Needs Most research evidence offered in support of McClelland’s learned needs theory has been provided by McClelland or his associates. For example, a classic study suggested that better managers have a high need for power that is directed toward the benefit of the organization.41 In general, research on the need for achievement has received the majority of attention from organizational behavior theorists and researchers. This research has provided a profile of the high achievers in society: High n Ach persons prefer to avoid easy and difficult performance goals. They actually prefer moderate goals that they think they can achieve. High n Ach persons prefer immediate and reliable feedback on how they are performing. The high n Ach person likes to be responsible for solving problems. Research has pointed out the complexity of the achievement motive. High n Ach individuals who focus on attaining success differ from those who focus on avoiding failure.42 Those who focus on attaining success tend to set more realistic goals and to choose moderately difficult tasks. Need for achievement has been also found to correlate highly with the need to attain status or wealth, especially for those involved in high-pay/high-status employment groups.43 In one ambitious project, researchers tried to raise the achievement motivation of businesspeople in an entire village in India. This program, the Kakinada project, consisted of encouraging the businesspeople to have high-achievement fantasies, to make plans that would help them realize the goals of a successful entrepreneur, and to communicate with one another about their goals and their methods of reaching them. The businesspeople

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Women Managers: Better Motivators Than Men?

Do women have a different management style than their male counterparts, and if so, do the consensus-building, participatory methods that are largely attributed to women work better than hierarchical, quasi-militaristic models? This subject has become increasingly controversial and leads to a deeper issue, namely, whether women managers do a better job of motivating workers than men. Proponents of this theory argue that women are more likely to manage in an interactive style, encouraging participation, sharing information, and enhancing the self-worth of others. Women are thought to use “transformational” leadership, working well with people at all organizational levels, understanding how employees feel, and motivating others by transforming their self-interest into the organization’s goals. A successful example of this kinder, gentler style of management is that of Anita Roddick, founder and owner of The Body Shop Skin and Hair Care stores. “It’s just a family here,” says Roddick. “We like to say, ‘Partnerships, not power trips.’” Her “family” has grown substantially since the company’s founding in 1976. Worldwide, The Body Shop has 2,500 stores serving more than 77 million customers in 50 different countries. Although advocates of these theories argue that women’s strengths should be tapped, some critics counter that any type of stereotyping by gender is a form of sexism, one that will only shackle women to their traditional role as nurturer. Some women managers are worried that men are seen as being one way and women another. Others, including Dee Soder (president of the Endymion Company, which advises senior corporate executives on their managerial strengths and weaknesses), believe the distinctions are irrelevant. “I think there is a higher proportion of participative women managers than there is of men,” she says, “but the crossover is so high, it is a moot point.” What does research say on this issue? In a review in this area, male and female managers were overall found to be equally effective. However, men were observed to be more

effective than women in leadership roles that were defined in more masculine terms (e.g., in the military), while women were generally more effective in roles that were defined in less masculine terms (e.g., in educational or social service organizations). These are generalizations that have many exceptions, of course, such as Deborah Kent, the first woman to head a vehicle assembly plant for Ford Motor Company. Her position in this plant, the third-largest Ford facility in the United States, is one that would typically be described as male in orientation, but while she has been described as tough, focused, and hard working, Ms. Kent has also been noted for her openness and her desire for input and feedback from her workers. Thus, she may reflect the developing redefinition of both jobs and the people who inhabit them. Whether or not it’s a matter of gender, everyone involved in the debate agrees on one thing: It’s time to expand the old management model. In the 21st century, there is a greater need than ever to motivate workers. Managers who are nurturers and value driven, be they male or female, will be well equipped for this challenging task. Sources: See www.bodyshop.com (accessed May 5, 2010); Joan F. Brett, Leanne E. Atwater, and David A. Waldman, “Effective Delivery of Workplace Discipline: Do Women Have to Be More Participatory Than Men?” Group & Organization Management 30, no. 5 (2005): 487–514; Barbara Mandell and Shilpa Pherwani, “Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership Style: A Gender Comparison,” Journal of Business and Psychology 17, no. 3 (Spring 2003): 387–404; Susan J. Wells, “A Female Executive Is Hard to Find,” HR Magazine, June 2001, pp. 40–49; Lena Williams, “A Silk Blouse on the Assembly Line,” New York Times, February 5, 1995, p. 7; Alice H. Eagly, Steven J. Karau, and Mona G. Makhijani, “Gender and the Effectiveness of Leaders: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, January 1995, pp. 125–45; Mary Billard, “Do Women Make Better Managers?” Working Woman, March 1992, pp. 68–107; Rose Mary Wentling, “Women in Middle Management: Their Career Development and Aspirations,” Business Horizons, January–February 1992, pp. 47–54.

became more productive as entrepreneurs, started several industries, enlarged their businesses, and hired more than 5,000 of their neighbors. In a 10-year reassessment of the program, achievement motivation levels and results were still exceptional.44 Recent work reported by McClelland suggests that at PepsiCo, a high need for achievement was more associated with success than was a high need for power.45 Other studies have found that gender differences exist regarding competitiveness and money beliefs. Men are inclined to be more competitive and tend to focus their ambitions toward making money, as capital acquisition is highly desirable.46 In total, men placed more value on salary, individual achievement, motivation, and directing others, whereas women emphasized good interpersonal relationships, interesting work, feelings of accomplishment, and professional growth.47 Similarly, successful women may also fulfill their need for power in different ways than successful men.48 As the OB at Work feature describes, women may be better suited to motivate employees than men.

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Based on theory and research, McClelland has made specific suggestions about developing a positive high need for achievement (that is, a high n Ach where there’s no fear of success). Using McClelland’s prescriptions, a manager would be encouraged to 1. Arrange job tasks so that employees receive periodic feedback on performance, providing information that enables them to make modifications or corrections. 2. Point out models of achievement to employees. Identify and publicize the accomplishments of achievement heroes—the successful people, the winners—and use them as models. 3. Work with employees to improve their self-image. High n Ach people like themselves and seek moderate challenges and responsibilities. 4. Introduce realism into all work-related topics: promotion, rewards, transfer, development opportunities, and team membership opportunities. Employees should think in realistic terms and think positively about how they can accomplish goals. There are a number of criticisms of McClelland’s work. First, use of the projective TAT to determine the three needs has been questioned. While projective techniques have some advantages over self-report questionnaires, the interpretation and weighing of a story are, at best, an art. Validation of such analysis is extremely important and often neglected, but a recent review of research has indicated that the TAT may be as effective in this area as questionnaire methods.49 A critical-incident technique has been used to examine motivation in a developing country, but more research is needed to determine whether critical incidents or other methods can be used for assessing McClellandtype needs.50 Second, McClelland’s claim that n Ach can be learned is in conflict with a large body of literature stating that motives are normally acquired in childhood and are difficult to alter in adulthood. McClelland acknowledges this problem but points to evidence in politics and religion to indicate that adult behaviors can be changed.51 Third, McClelland’s notion of learned needs is questioned on the grounds of whether needs are permanently acquired. Research is needed to determine whether acquired needs last over a period of time. Can something learned in a training and development program be sustained on the job? This is an issue that McClelland and others have not been able to clarify.

A Synopsis of the Four Content Theories Each of the four content theories explains behavior from a slightly different perspective. None of the theories can or should be used by managers as the sole basis for explaining or inferring motivation. Although some critics are skeptical, it appears that people have innate and learned needs and that job factors result in a varying degree of satisfaction. Thus, each theory provides managers with some understanding of behavior and performance. Figure 5.4 compares the four theories. McClelland proposed no lower-order needs. However, his needs for achievement and power aren’t identical with Herzberg’s motivators, Maslow’s higher-order needs, or Alderfer’s growth needs, although there are some similarities. A major difference among the four content theories is McClelland’s emphasis on socially acquired needs. Also, the Maslow theory offers a static need hierarchy system; Alderfer presents a flexible, three-need classification approach; and Herzberg discusses intrinsic and extrinsic job factors.

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FIGURE 5.4 A Graphic Comparison of Four Content Theories of Motivation

Higherorder needs

Maslow (need hierarchy)

Herzberg (two-factor theory)

Self-actualization

The work itself • Responsibility • Advancement • Growth

Esteem

Motivators

Safety and security Hygiene conditions

Quality of interpersonal relations among peers, with supervisors, with subordinates

McClelland

Need for achievement Growth Need for power

Achievement Recognition

Belongingness, social, and love

Basic needs

Alderfer

Relatedness

Need for affiliation Job security Existence

Physiological

Working conditions Salary

Each theory has strengths and limitations that practicing managers need to consider and be cautious about. Table 5.2 highlights each model’s main characteristics. As is typically the case when competing theories exist, no one theory has clear-cut superiority. Each of the content theories purports to present the clearest, most meaningful, and most accurate explanation of motivation. One concept that few of the content theories addresses explicitly, however, is the quality of work done by the employee. Do employees have a need to perform so that a high quality of product or service is the outcome? Or is it management’s job, to a large degree, to get employees excited about and involved in making high-quality goods? At PepsiCo, parent company of Pepsi-Cola, Frito-Lay, Quaker Foods, Tropicana, Gatorade, and many others, managers feel that the answer to both questions is yes.52 PepsiCo attempts to address both areas by encouraging all of its 198,000 employees worldwide to act as if they were the owner of a business, with the rationale that a sense of ownership and involvement in the company will generate the enthusiasm for producing the highest level of goods and services. SharePower is the name of the program at PepsiCo that enables all employees, not just upper-level executives, to earn stock options in the company, each year totaling 10 percent of an employee’s pay of the previous year. This program not only gives employees a greater stake in the survival of the company, it also has helped to create a culture where all employees have a sense of both greater responsibility and an opportunity to contribute to the success of their part of the larger organization. The next OB at Work feature further addresses the issue of when and why employees “go the extra mile” for their organizations. SharePower is PepsiCo’s answer to the question, “How can we best become a worldclass competitor?” Any theory of motivation claiming to be complete in today’s turbulent environment must directly address issues of quality and quality improvement as they are impacted by the strategies of today’s organizations.

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TABLE 5.2 Comparison of Four Content Theories of Motivation Content Motivation Theories

Assumptions Made

How Motivation Is Measured

Practical Application Value

Problems and Limitations

Maslow’s need hierarchy

Individuals attempt to satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward higher-order needs.

Maslow, as a clinical psychologist, used his patients in asking questions and listening to answers. Organizational researchers have relied on self-report scales.

Makes sense to managers and gives many a feeling of knowing how motivation works for their employees.

Doesn’t address the issue of individual differences; has received limited research support; and fails to caution about the dynamic nature of needs— needs change.

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Individuals who fail to satisfy growth needs become frustrated, regress, and refocus attention on lower-order needs.

Self-report scales are used to assess three need categories.

Calls attention to what happens when and if need satisfaction does not occur; frustrations can be a major reason why performance levels aren’t attained or sustained.

Not enough research has been conducted; available research is self-report in nature, which raises the issue of how good the measurement is. Another issue is whether individuals really have only three need areas.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Only some job features and characteristics can result in motivation. Some of the characteristics that managers have focused on may result in a comfortable work setting but don’t motivate employees.

Ask employees in interviews to describe critical job incidents.

Talks in terms that managers understand. Identifies motivators that managers can develop, fine-tune, and use.

Assumes that every worker is similar in needs and preferences; fails to meet scientific measurement standards; hasn’t been updated to reflect changes in society with regard to job security and pay needs.

McClelland’s learned needs

A person’s needs are learned from the culture (society); therefore, training and education can enhance and influence a person’s need strength.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective technique that encourages respondents to reveal their needs.

If a person’s needs can be assessed, then management can intervene through training to develop needs that are compatible with organizational goals.

Interpreting the TAT is difficult; the effect that training has on changing needs hasn’t been sufficiently tested.

The process theories of motivation describe how employees are motivated or how they select behaviors to meet their needs and determine whether they made the most successful choice. Process explanations of motivation suggest that motivation varies from situation to situation. We will discuss expectancy and equity process theories in this chapter. In the next chapter, other process theories will be introduced. The expectancy and equity process theories are important in explaining goal setting and reinforcement process motivational theories and practices.

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Motivating Employees during a Recession

Although the U.S. economy is recovering from a severe recession, a persistently high national unemployment rate hovering just below 10 percent and an 18 percent unemployment rate for young people aged 16–24 helps to explain why companies and organizations in the United States are not as willing to give large annual bonuses to their employees and executives as in the past. Consequently, many managers are looking for alternative and creative ways to reward and motivate employees. Some companies, such as FedEx, Hewlett-Packard, Advanced Micro Devices, and The New York Times, have attempted to maintain employee motivation during the recession by bucking conventional wisdom. Instead of instituting largescale employee layoffs, these companies have opted for companywide reductions in employees’ base pay. Leaders of these companies believe that their current executives and employees are willing to sacrifice a portion of their pay for a short time until the firm’s financial situation strengthens again. If the pay cut is done in a transparent and equitable manner (e.g., executives give back more than lower-paid employees), then it is hoped that morale will be maintained and forced layoffs of friends and colleagues avoided. Rhino Foods goes one step further when demand for its dessert products decreases during slow economic times. The Burlington, Vermont, company allows its best employees to voluntarily take other jobs with Rhino’s customers with the promise that Rhino will have a job waiting for these individuals once business improves. Rhino officials claim that employees who transfer out to customer companies then return with a new set of skills and stronger relationships with those customers.

Other ways of keeping employees motivated during tough times include a variety of low-cost or “soft” benefits. Here are some examples of low-cost benefits: •

eBay has outfitted two quiet areas at its San Jose campuses with large pillows that employees can use forprayer and meditation during work;

Microsoft offers its employees dry cleaning at its Redmond, Washington, location and sponsors free grocery delivery to employees’ homes;

Sylvan Dell Publishing set up an on-site kennel to accommodate employees who bring their dogs to work; and,

Google gives its employees bonuses that can only be used toward the purchase of a hybrid automobile.

During lean times, companies need to retain their talent with fewer financial resources. Some creative approaches such as reduced salaries (instead of layoffs), sharing employees with customers, and providing low cost but meaningful benefits to employees are a good way to keep employees through the tough times. Sources: See www.bls.gov (accessed on May 5, 2010); A. Mishra, K. Mishra, and G. Spreitzer (2009), “Downsizing the Company without Downsizing Morale,” MIT Sloan Management Review 50, no. 3 (2009): 39–44; Jena McGregor, “Cutting Salaries Instead of Jobs,” Businessweek, May 28, 2009, pp. 46–48; Peter Coy, Mark Scott, Lindsey Gerdes, and Kenji Hall, “The Lost Generation,” Businessweek, October 8, 2009, pp., 32; B. Chapman, “Fun and Games,” Incentive 182, no. 6 (June 2008): 28–30.

Expectancy Theory expectancy theory of motivation Theory in which an employee is faced with a set of first-level outcomes and selects an outcome based on how the choice is related to second-level outcomes. The individual’s preferences are based on the strength (valence) of the desire to achieve a second-level state and the perception of relationship between first- and second-level outcomes.

A widely cited process explanation of motivation, developed by Victor Vroom, is expectancy theory. The majority of the early studies (about 50) tested the accuracy of expectancy theory in predicting employee behavior.53 Since then, additional studies have tested the theory itself. Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity. In his view, most behaviors are under the voluntary control of the person and are consequently motivated.

Terminology To understand the expectancy theory of motivation, we must define the terms in the theory and explain how they operate. The most important terms are discussed in this section.

First- and Second-Level Outcomes The first-level outcomes resulting from behavior are associated with doing the job itself. These outcomes include productivity, absenteeism, turnover, and quality of productivity.

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Second-level outcomes are those events (rewards or punishments) that the first-level outcomes are likely to produce, such as merit pay increase, group acceptance or rejection, and promotion.

Instrumentality instrumentality Concept in expectancy theory of motivation in which a person’s perception of association of first- and second-level outcomes is determined.

This is an individual’s perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second-level outcomes. Vroom suggests that instrumentality can take values ranging from 1, indicating a perception that attainment of the second level is certain without the first outcome and impossible with it, to 1, indicating that the first outcome is necessary and sufficient for the second outcome to occur. A value of 0 would indicate no relationship between first and second outcomes. This association between outcomes can thus be thought of in terms of correlation.

Valence valence Strength of a person’s preference for particular outcome.

The preference for outcomes, as seen by the individual, is termed valence. For example, a person may prefer a 9 percent merit increase over a transfer to a new department, or the transfer over relocation to a new facility. An outcome is positively valent when it’s preferred; it’s negatively valent when it’s not preferred or is avoided. An outcome has a valence of zero when the individual is indifferent to attaining or not attaining it. The valence concept applies to first- and second-level outcomes. For example, a person may prefer to be a high-performing (first-level outcome) employee because he believes that this will lead to a merit increase in pay (second-level outcome).54

Expectancy

expectancy (probability) Perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.

This term refers to the individual’s belief concerning the likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome such as level of performance. That is, expectancy is the perceived chance of something occurring because of a behavior. Expectancy has a value ranging from 0, indicating no chance that an outcome will occur after the behavior or act, to 11, indicating certainty that a particular outcome will follow an act or a behavior. Expectancy is like a subjective probability. In the work setting, individuals hold an effort–performanceexpectancy. This expectancy represents the individual’s perception of how hard it is to achieve a particular behavior (say, completing the budget on time) and the probability of achieving that behavior. For example, Joan, who’s preparing a budget, may have a high expectancy that if she works around the clock she can complete the budget on time; on the other hand, she may perceive that her chances of finishing on time are about 40 percent if she works only during the day. Given a number of alternative levels of behavior to finish the budget (working 8 hours, 10 hours, or around the clock), she’ll choose the level of performance that has the greatest motivational force associated with it. In other words, when faced with choices about behavior, the person performing the task goes through a process of questioning: Can I perform at that level if I give it a try? If I perform at that level, what will happen? Do I prefer the things that will happen? Two other terms are worth defining here as well. The term force is equated with motivation. The intent of expectancy theory is to assess the magnitude and direction of all the forces acting on the individual. The act associated with the greatest force is the one most likely to occur. The term ability designates a person’s potential for doing the job or work; it refers to the person’s physical and mental abilities to do the job and not to what the person will do. That potential may or may not be utilized.

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Principles of Expectancy Theory Integration of the important expectancy theory concepts generates three major principles:55 1. V1 S(V2 I). The valence associated with various first-level outcomes is a sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I). 2. M f(V1 E). Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome. If expectancy is low, there will be little motivation. Similarly, if an outcome’s valence is zero, neither the absolute value nor variations in the strength of the expectancies of accomplishing it will have any effect. 3. P f(M A). Performance is considered to be a multiplicative function of motivation (the force) and ability. Figure 5.5 uses numerical values to illustrate how expectancy theory works conceptually. The situation portrayed involves Joan, a budget specialist, facing various performance FIGURE 5.5 Application of Expectancy Theory: Joan’s Situation Expectancy (probability of performance given effort)

Performance outcome: first-level (valences 3 instrumentalities)

Finishing budget on time (6.9)

Motivation

2.76

0.4

2.24

0.7

0.20

1.0

Finishing budget on required day but after deadline (3.2)

Finishing budget on day after deadline (0.20)

Instrumentalities (how much performance outcome and secondlevel outcome are associated)

Valences of secondlevel outcome to Joan (in parentheses)

0.6

Day off (6)

1.0

Recognition/compliment from boss (3)

0.3

Mention of performance in personnel record (1)

0.2

Day off (6)

0.7

Recognition/compliment from boss (3)

–0.1

Mention of performance in personnel record (1)

0.0

Day off (6)

0.2

Recognition/compliment from boss (3)

–0.4

Mention of performance in personnel record (1)

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(first- and second-level) outcomes. Starting at the second-level outcome point (the right side), the valence associated with finishing the budget on time is calculated by V1 V2 I, or VI (6 0.6) (3 1.0) (1 0.3), or 6.9. We’re assuming that Joan has indicated her preferences, or valence strength, for these three outcomes. She indicates a strength of preference of 6 for a day off, 3 for recognition and compliments from the boss, and 1 for a mention of performance in her personnel file. Her preference ratings indicate Joan values the day off much more than the two other outcomes. Her valences are multiplied by the instrumentalities, her perceptions of the association of performance outcomes, and each of the second-level outcomes. Remember the 6, 3, and 1 valence strengths are set for illustrative purposes. These values indicating strength are subjectively established. Thus, for the “finishing budget on time” performance, this would be 6(0.6) 3(1.0) 1(0.3) 5 6.9. The motivational force for the condition of finishing the budget on time is calculated by M f(V1 E), or M 6.9 0.4, or 2.76. The motivational force for finishing the budget on the required day but after the deadline is 2.24, while finishing the budget the day after the deadline has a force of 0.20. Thus, the strongest force or motivation would be directed toward finishing the budget on time. Certainly, a manager would not engage in this type of mathematical calculation. However, he or she would attempt to determine how employees think in terms of expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences.

Research on Expectancy Each year brings more empirical research on expectancy theory. A few studies have used students in laboratory experiments. However, most research has been conducted in field settings. One interesting study, for example, examined performance–outcome instrumentality in a temporary organization.56 The experiment used either an hourly rate of pay (low instrumentality, or little link between immediate behavior and outcomes) or a piece rate (high instrumentality, or payment based on each piece produced). After individuals worked for three four-hour days under one pay system, they were shifted to the other system and worked three more days. Immediately following the shift in pay systems and for all three subsequent days, the performance of the subjects shifted to the high-instrumentality system was higher than their own performance under the low-instrumentality system and higher than the performance of the subjects shifted to the low-instrumentality system. Another research area focused on the model’s valence and behavior factors. The results have been mixed.57 However, three conditions apparently must hold for the valence of outcomes to be related to effort. Performance–outcome instrumentalities must be greater than zero; effort–performance expectancies must be greater than zero; and there must be some variability in the valence of outcomes.58

Management Practices Managers can certainly use expectancy theory in developing their own motivation programs.59 However, some managerial actions must be taken to improve the theory’s value. First, managers need to focus on employee expectations for success. That is, do employees feel that they can attain the performance goals that are set for them, or do they perceive that the achievement of these goals and the resultant positive outcomes are beyond their capabilities? If this latter situation is the case, especially in group situations, then low productivity is often the result.60 Managers need to realign assignments and rewards to facilitate the development of realistic challenge within jobs. Second, managers must actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees. In our example, Joan valued a day off. Simply providing a notation in her personnel file commenting on her performance wasn’t as valued as the day off. Managers

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Don’t Forget to Consider Nontraditional Rewards

In discussions of expectancy theory outcomes, little attention is usually paid to the preference of employees for flexible work arrangements. This seems to be a mistake. Research data indicate that 85 percent of U.S. wage and salaried workers live with family members and have day-to-day family responsibilities. If organizations fail to consider the positive benefits of flexible work arrangements and other nontraditional benefits, they will be faced with high absenteeism and turnover. Using strategies for workers with elder care and childrearing responsibilities would appear to be a powerful motivator. Having valuable employees burn out because of family/work balance issues is costly. SAS—a privately held, $2.3 billion-dollar software firm—is ahead of a lot of firms with regard to retention initiatives, which include onsite and affordable child care and health care, gymnasium facilities, flexible work schedules, and a culture that encourages

employees to spend quality time with their families. Treating employees as valuable assets means taking into consideration family, child-rearing, and community responsibilities. SAS believes that because of its progressive programs and the positive motivational climate created it is able to retain most of its 9,000 worldwide employees. The SAS approach works around the world and is preferred by employees because it is fair, meaningful, and flexible. It’s no wonder SAS was ranked number one in the Fortune’s Best Companies to Work For list in 2010. Sources: David A Kaplan, “#1 SAS The Best Company to Work For,” Fortune, February 2010, pp. 56–64; Rick Whiting, “Going Above and Beyond,” InformationWeek, April 28, 2003, pp. 49–51; John M. Ivancevich and Tom N. Duening, Managing Einsteins: Leading High Tech Workers in the Digital Age (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002); Matt Bolch, “The Coming Crunch,” Training, April 2001, pp. 54–58; and Robert Reich, The Future of Success (New York: Knopf, 2001).

who know what subordinates prefer can attempt to provide the highly valued outcomes. Because (as this kind of outcome preference information points out) individuals prefer different outcomes, motivation programs should be designed with enough flexibility to address such differences in individual preference.61 The accompanying OB at Work feature suggests that managers must address nonwork outcomes. Third, managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance goals. Showing through example that there’s an actual association between performance goals and desired second-level outcomes increases employees’ belief that hard work and good performance result in outcomes they prefer. Expectancy theory assumes employees allocate their behavior according to anticipated consequences of actions. Workers weigh the information available to them and make decisions according to the value of the consequences and their own probabilities of achieving what they prefer. Expectancy theory thus views behavior as the product of what employees believe will happen in the future.

Criticisms of Expectancy Theory Theorists, researchers, and practitioners (to a lesser extent) continue to work on defining, measuring, and applying expectancy concepts. Many difficulties are encountered when testing the model.62 One problem involves the issue of effort, or motivation itself. The theory attempts to predict choice or effort. But without a clear specification of the meaning of effort, the variable can’t be adequately measured. Typically, self, peer, or supervisor ratings of effort are used. Unfortunately, each study seems to have its own definition, measurement, and research design. The issue of first-level performance outcomes presents another difficulty. Expectancy theory doesn’t specify which outcomes are relevant to a particular individual in a situation. Each researcher addresses this issue in a unique way. Consequently, no systematic approach is being used across investigations. Furthermore, the expectancy approach contains an implicit assumption that all motivation is conscious. Individuals are assumed to consciously calculate the pleasure or pain

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they expect to attain or avoid, then make a choice. Although it’s generally accepted that individuals aren’t always conscious of their motives, expectancies, and perceptual processes, expectancy theory says nothing about subconscious motivation. For the most part, this point has been neglected in the theory. Most of the available field studies testing the model have relied on employees from a single organization who were doing the same or similar jobs. These studies seriously limit and restrict the range of expectancies and instrumentalities. This type of research also raises the issue of whether results from these studies can be generalized to other samples. Is it valid to make generalizations? The use of expectancy theory to motivate employees appears to be culturally bound. That is, in cultures where employees believe they have some control over the work context and their own behavior expectancy (e.g., the United States, Canada, New Zealand) expectancy theory explanations appear to have some validity. However, in cultures where the perception of individual control is minimal (e.g., Japan, China, Iraq), the expectancy concepts of preference are not applicable.63

Equity Theory equity theory of motivation Theory that examines discrepancies within Person after Person has compared his input/ outcome ratio to that of reference person.

J. Stacey Adams, while working as a research psychologist with the General Electric Co. in Crotonville, New York, developed and tested an equity theory of motivation. The essence of equity theory is that employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations. This theory of motivation is based on the assumption that individuals, who work in exchange for rewards from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work. This is significant as authors such as Pfeffer believe that maintaining employee perceptions of equity is a critical aspect of the management role.64 Four important terms in this theory are 1. Person: the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived. 2. Comparison other: any individual(s) or group used by Person as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes. 3. Inputs: the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job. These may be achieved (e.g., skills, experience, learning) or ascribed (e.g., age, sex, race). 4. Outcomes: what Person received from the job (e.g., recognition, fringe benefits, pay). Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees. Inequity exists when these ratios aren’t equivalent: An individual’s own ratio of inputs to outcomes could be greater or less than that of others.65 Figure 5.6 illustrates the equity theory of

FIGURE 5.6 The Equity Theory of Motivation A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)

compares his or her input–outcome ratio to

IP= Inputs of the person. OP= Outcomes of the person. IRP= Inputs of reference person. ORP= Outcomes of reference person.

a reference person's (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)

and perceives

OP = ORP (equity), IP IRP or OP < ORP (inequity), IP IRP or OP > ORP (inequity). IP IRP

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TABLE 5.3 Jeff’s Concept of Equity Theory: An Application

Outcomes and Inputs College degree (input) CPA (input) Experience on job (input) Executive dining room privileges (outcome) Annual salary (outcome)

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Weighted Value of Outcomes and Inputs Jeff

Bob

Weighted Value of Outcomes and Inputs

1 1 2

Yes Yes 18 months

Yes Yes None

1 1 0

1 4

Yes $27,000

Yes $31,000

1 5

Outcomes (1 1 4) Outcomes(1 1 5) Inputs (1 1 1 1 2) Inputs (1 1 1) 5 6 , 4 2 (Jeff) 1.25 , 3.00 (Bob)

motivation in general; Table 5.3 gives an example. Note that Jeff has considered five points of comparison and has assigned hypothetical values (weights) to the importance of each point. Jeff is assessing his outcomes as 5 and inputs as 4, for a 1.25 index, while Jeff assesses Bob’s situation as 6 outcomes and 2 inputs, or 3.0. (The two major differences in this case are Jeff’s being paid $4,000 less than Bob and his 18 months’ more experience than Bob’s.) Thus, Jeff concludes that he gets less out of the job than does Bob. In essence, he believes that he’s being underpaid relative to Bob, he feels distressed or troubled by this unexplained inequity, and he is motivated to resolve this situation.66

Alternatives to Restore Equity Equity theory suggests alternative ways to restore a feeling or sense of equity. Some examples of restoring equity would be 1. Changing inputs. Jeff may decide to put less time or effort into the job. Other inputs that could be changed are reliability, cooperation with others, initiative, and acceptance of responsibility. 2. Changing outcomes. Jeff may decide to confront his boss and ask for a raise, more time off, or better assignments. 3. Changing the reference person. The reference person (Bob) can be changed by making comparisons with the input/outcome ratios of some other person. This change can restore equity. 4. Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person. If the reference person is a co-worker, it might be possible to attempt to change his inputs. Asking Bob to work harder or to take more responsibility on projects would be examples of such an attempt. 5. Changing the situation. Jeff might quit the job to alter his feeling of inequity. He could also transfer to get away from an inequitable situation. Each of these methods is designed to reduce or change the feelings of discomfort and tension created by inequity. Equity theory proposes that when inequity exists, a person is motivated to take one or more of these five steps. The value and usefulness of equity theory to managers is evaluated by some in terms of ethical issues. The principle of distributive justice applies equity concepts. Some individuals assume that inequity is acceptable if (1) everyone has the same access to the most

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organizational justice The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated within the organizations for which they work.

distributive justice The perception of fairness of the resources and rewards in an organization.

procedural justice The perception of fairness of the process used to distribute rewards.

favored positions in society and (2) inequities are in the best interest of the least well off in society.67 Does everyone have equal access to the most challenging, best-paying, or higheststatus jobs in society? Should those who are less well off receive greater rewards than the more well off members of society? These are issues that most managers would prefer to not even attempt to resolve; they are part of a broader discussion of ethical, moral, political, sociological, legal, and historical perspectives. In the 1980s and 1990s, equity theory inspired new streams of research to explain employee attitudes and behavior. The concept of organizational justice, or the degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace, attracted a considerable amount of research attention. As Table 5.4 illustrates, there are four main components of this research domain, including distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice.68 The first component, distributive justice, is the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed throughout an organization. This concept often deals with compensation and is closely related to the earlier discussion on equity theory. A recent study explored whether high levels of CEO pay violate principles of justice and fairness.69 However, researchers have applied the concept of distributive justice to a wide variety of workplace situations, including organizational politics, employee smoking policies, university tenure and promotion decisions, taking charge of behavior in organizations, mentoring, and satisfaction with benefit levels.70 Related to distributive justice is the notion of procedural justice. Procedural justice refers to the perceived equity or fairness of the organization’s processes and procedures used to make resource and allocation decisions.71 That is, employees are concerned with the fairness of decision making in all areas of work, including decisions related to compensation, performance appraisal, training, and work group assignments.

TABLE 5.4 Four Dimensions of Organizational Justice Dimension of Organizational Justice

Definition

Sample of Employee Concerns Related to the Dimension

Distributive

Perception of fairness of the resources and rewards in an organization.

I worked really hard this year but only received a 5 percent raise. I wanted 10 percent. Do I have a right to be upset? I received a 3.0 (out of 5.0) on my performance appraisal this year. I don’t think it’s a fair rating.

Procedural

Perception of fairness of the process used to distribute rewards.

The way they make pay raise decisions around here doesn’t seem fair. The manager’s favorites always get the largest raises. I deserved a 4.5 (out of 5.0) on my appraisal. I don’t think the appraisal process is fair because it only measures part of what I do at this organization.

Interpersonal

Perception of fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities.

When I questioned my boss about the 5 percent pay raise, he yelled at me and told me “not to be a cry baby.” My boss told me I didn’t receive a higher performance rating because I’m a slacker and need to be fired.

Informational

The perception of fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities.

Can you believe I found out about my 5 percent raise in an email? I was expecting to hear it from my boss directly in a one-on-one meeting.

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Procedural justice has been shown to have a positive impact on a number of affective and behavioral reactions at the workplace.72 In other words, when employees perceive high levels of procedural justice with the organization’s resource and allocation decisions, they are more likely to: • • • • • • •

interpersonal justice The perception of fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities.

The aforementioned outcomes are some of the positive consequences of procedural justice when it comes to organizational decision making. Moreover, people are more inclined to perceive decisions to be fair when they have a voice in the decision, there is consistency in decision-making, and the process and procedures used to the make the decisions conform to ethical and moral values.73 Treating employees, customers, and suppliers in a fair and respectful manner is an important and ongoing managerial goal. In order to be successful, managers must use strong interpersonal and observation skills to be “plugged in” and aware of the perceptions of important stakeholders such as employees.74 Related to procedural justice is the concept of interpersonal justice, which refers to judgments made by employees about whether they feel fairly treated by their supervisors and other authorities in the organization.75 Perceptions of interpersonal justice are higher when authorities are seen as treating employees in a dignified and respectful manner. However, interpersonal injustice can occur if employees perceive that the authorities treat them in an insulting, embarrassing, humiliating manner in front of others or label the employees as racist or sexist.76 Unfortunately, poor treatment by managers and other authorities in organizations appears to be a common occurrence. In a random telephone survey of 1,000 working adults in the United States, approximately 45 percent of respondents reported that they work or have worked for an abusive supervisor.77 The researchers defined abusive behavior as verbal abuse, intimidation, and threatening gestures. Other researchers analyzed 110 research studies to compare the effects of sexual harassment and workplace bullying on employees.78 They defined workplace aggression as any behavior that included: • • • • • •

informational justice The perception of fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities.

Be committed to the organization; Be intrinsically motivated; Stay with the organization; Engage in organizational citizenship behaviors; Trust their supervisors; Apply great effort to their work; and, Perform their job well.

persistently criticizing employees’ work; yelling; spreading gossip or lies; reminding employees of their mistakes; excluding or ignoring workers; and, insulting workers’ habits, attitudes, or personal lives.

The study found that employees who experienced bullying and incivility at work were more likely to quit their jobs, and have lower levels of well-being and job satisfaction. Indeed, research suggests that abusive treatment from authorities and supervisors is associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress.79 A final form of organizational justice, informational justice, focuses on whether employees perceive that decisions and other communication from authorities are explained in a fair manner.80 When important decisions are being communicated to employees, do

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

Keep Your Surviving Employees in the Loop

Layoffs are a fact of life for many organizations. Unfortunately, there’s evidence that companies that engage in layoffs may find that many “survivors” of the layoffs (i.e., employees who don’t get let go) end up losing motivation while they wonder if “they’re next,” voluntarily leave the company, or both. Layoffs, combined with the loss of good employees who jump ship, may leave the firm understaffed when the economy picks up again. What can managers of a company do to lessen the negative impact of layoffs on those employees who survive the personnel cuts? One approach is to communicate and tell the truth when communicating with employees. Managers should keep many channels of communication open and provide information about the financial condition the organization and current and additional layoffs on a frequent basis. Here are some approaches that managers can take to ensure high levels of informational justice during turbulent times: •

Engage in informal “chats” (via text, e-mail, in person, or videoconference) with employees to keep the communication channels open;

Don’t sugarcoat bad news because employees will sense this and lose confidence in decision makers;

Establish an HR hotline or “800” number for employees to call for updates; and,

Create a Web page or dashboard that is updated on a daily basis.

In addition, some CEOs are communicating with their employees via blogs. Bill Marriott, chairman and CEO of Marriott International, has a blog called “On the Move,” while Mike Critelli, executive chairman of Pitney Bowes, keeps employees up to date with his blog “Open Mike.” These blogs and the other communication channels above are meant to convey a sense of trust and inclusiveness while decreasing secrecy and dishonesty when authorities communicate with employees. Sources: Adapted from Knight Kiplinger, “When Firms Are Hurting, The Pain Should Be Shared,” Kiplinger’s Personal Finance 63, no. 5 (2009): 18; Susan J. Wells, “Layoff Aftermath,” HRMagazine, November 2008, pp. 37–42; T. R. Tyler, and R. J. Bies, “Beyond Formal Procedures: The Interpersonal Context of Procedural Justice,” in J. S. Carroll, (ed.), Applied Social Psychology and Organizational Settings (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990): 77–98.

authorities take time to explain their decisions in a thorough and reasonable manner? Or, do they send out a brief e-mail or memo that announces major changes without adequate justification? The former approach will build a sense of informational justice among employees whereas the latter approach will erode it. The OB and Your Career above discusses how important it is to maintain informational justice when organizations undergo difficult periods like layoffs. In sum, the organizational justice literature suggests that if managers and other authorities treat employees in what’s perceived to be a fair manner, then employees are more likely to have higher levels of trust in their supervisors, and be more satisfied with their jobs and organizations.

Research on and Criticism of Equity Theory Most of the research on equity theory has focused on pay as the basic outcome.81 One study incorporated workplace elements into an equity theory framework.82 Employees reassigned to offices of workers two levels above them in the management hierarchy were expected to perform at a higher level than employees reassigned to offices of workers only one level above them. Similarly, employees reassigned to offices of workers two levels below them would be expected to perform at a lower level than employees reassigned to offices of workers only one level below them. The findings indicated that employees assigned to higher-status offices increased their performance (a response to overpayment inequity) while those reassigned to lower-status offices lowered their performance (a response to underpayment inequity). The study supported equity theory’s predictions that the reaction to an inequity will be proportional to the magnitude of the

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inequity experienced. It’s also important to note that the workplace environment—not pay inequity—was the focal point in the study. Indeed, a review of the research reveals that pay is not always the outcome considered, as equity theory has shown predicted effects for both organizational citizenship83 (going beyond the call of duty) and attitudes toward tasks and work groups.84 Several individuals have questioned the extent to which inequity that results from overpayment (rewards) leads to perceived inequity. Locke argues that employees are seldom told they’re overpaid. He believes that individuals are likely to adjust their idea of what constitutes an equitable payment to justify their pay.85 Because employer–employee exchange relationships are highly impersonal when compared with exchanges between friends, perceived overpayment inequity may be more likely when friends are involved. Thus, individuals probably react to overpayment inequity only when they believe that their actions have led to a friend being treated unfairly. The individual receives few signals from the organization that he’s being treated unfairly. Most equity research focuses on short-term comparisons.86 What is needed are longitudinal studies that examine inequity over a period of time. What happens over time as the inequity remains, is increased, or is decreased? Are comparison others always within one’s own organization, and do they change during a person’s work career? These questions and research to answer them could provide insight into the dynamic character of equity theory and individual responses.87 Another interesting criticism of equity theory is that it ignores reactions to experienced inequities. Is it not likely that two people will react somewhat differently to the same magnitude of inequity if they believe different things caused the inequity? Folger has introduced the notion of referent cognitions theory to explore the role of the decision-making process in shaping perceptions of inequity.88 In a work situation, suppose a manager allocates merit raises on the basis of a performance appraisal review. One employee may appreciate this strategy, while another may resent the manager, believing that another approach based on critical incidents and work on difficult assignments should have been used to allocate the merit raises. Thus the second employee is more likely to perceive inequity in the appraisal process. Referent cognitions theory predicts resentment of unfair treatment when procedures yield poor outcomes for a person.89 A study of manufacturing plant employees found that individual satisfaction with pay was highly related to the perceived fairness of the actual size of pay raises; however, the issues of commitment and trust in the organization were more affected by the procedure used to determine the raises. The researchers concluded that, in the allocation of pay increases, concerns other than the specific distribution of the money need to be seriously considered. They thus implied that an equity theory explanation of motivation is too restricted and incomplete.90 However, because equity theory does seem to be applicable in other cultures such as China, France, and Mexico, it can be a useful explanation of employee behavior.91

Summary of Key Points

• Any management attempt to improve individuals’ job performance must utilize motivation theories. This results from the fact that motivation is concerned with behavior or, more specifically, goal-directed behavior. • A major reason employees’ behaviors differ is that people’s needs and goals vary. Social, cultural, hereditary, and job factors influence behaviors. To understand the nature of motivation, managers must learn about subordinates’ needs. • Theories of motivation can be classified as being either content theories or process theories. This chapter reviews four of the more widely cited content theories. These theories

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Discussion and Review Questions

focus on factors within the person (e.g., needs, goals, motives) that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior. Maslow’s theory assumes that people have a need to grow and develop. The implication is that motivational programs have a higher probability of success if need deficiencies are reduced. Although Maslow’s need hierarchy hasn’t met rigorous standards of scientific testing, it appears that an adequately fulfilled need doesn’t provide a good target for managers in building motivators that can influence performance. Alderfer offers a three-level need hierarchy of existence, relatedness, and growth needs. In addition to the satisfaction–progression process proposed by Maslow, Alderfer states that there is also a frustration–regression process at work that plays a major role in motivating people. Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation identifies two types of factors in the workplace: satisfiers and dissatisfiers. One apparent weakness of the theory is that its findings haven’t been replicated by other researchers. Despite this and other shortcomings, it does focus on job-related factors in managerial terminology. McClelland has proposed a theory of learned needs. The behavior associated with the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power is instrumental in an individual’s job performance. Managers should attempt to acquire an understanding of these needs. A complex, difficult to assess motivation theory is based on expectancy. This theory examines the processes followed and steps taken by a person in pursuing and attaining outcomes. Equity theory of motivation focuses on individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated compared with others.

1. Think about a current or past job that you held. How motivated were you to do a good job? Which of the theories discussed in this chapter could best explain your high (or low) level of motivation? 2. As a future manager, which of the theories presented in this chapter will be of most use to you in motivating your employees? Explain. 3. Describe the major differences between Maslow’s need hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG explanation of motivation. 4. What factors serve to make Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory so intuitively attractive to practicing managers despite its obvious flaws? 5. Why would it be interesting to examine and compare the needs, discussed by McClelland, in young, middle-aged, and older people in the United States, Japan, Germany, Poland, Egypt, Argentina, and Sweden? 6. How would Herzberg’s motivation theory help to explain why most people feel a good salary is not enough to motivate someone over the long-term in a job? 7. Based on equity theory, why is it important that decisions about pay or compensations programs have be perceived as fair? 8. In your opinion, should managers attempt to motivate employees with different ethnic backgrounds all in the same manner? Why or why not? 9. Why is it important to understand that a manager must infer the motivation level of subordinates? 10. Why is expectancy theory described as the most complex and difficult to measure theory of work motivation?

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Taking It to the Net

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Generational Differences This chapter opened with a discussion of generational differences. Using your favorite search engine, visit the Internet to research answers to the following questions about the different generations in the workplace: 1. Why do the Gen Yers (or Millennials) need a structured work environment, a fair boss, and constructive feedback? 2. What were some of the defining events that happened during the Gen Xers’ formative years that made many of them cynical about work, careers, and business? 3. Describe some potential areas of conflict between the Baby Boomers and Gen Xers. Assume that the Baby Boomers are supervisors and the Gen Xers report to them. 4. Thinking about the Veterans, which group (Boomers, Gen X, or Gen Y) do you think they would get along with the best? Why? Could a manager concerned about motivation use any of your findings?

Case for Analysis: What Motivates Entrepreneurs? For most people, going to work means working for someone else; a select few choose to become entrepreneurs. While TV advertisements depict the good life associated with “being your own boss,” the reality may be very different. Small-business owners often risk their homes and life savings to fund a new enterprise, and while they may be the “boss,” most work hours well beyond those of a typical employee. A recent Gallup survey found that the majority of small-business owners work an average of 52 hours a week, with 39 percent working 60 or more hours a week. Almost half (49 percent) of the polled small-business owners stated that they work at least six days a week with 19 percent reporting a seven-day workweek. For some entrepreneurs, this dedication allows them to achieve tremendous financial success and notoriety. For example, consider Max Leeching and Peter Thiel, who founded PayPal in 1998. Their company quickly grew to become the premier Internet payment processing company, and in 2002, less than four years after its inception, eBay purchased PayPal for $1.2 billion. However, few entrepreneurs achieve such stellar success. Most business owners are everyday people: the restauranteur, the convenience store owner, and the dry cleaner. These businesspeople work long hours often for an hourly rate less than they could make working for someone else. What motivates entrepreneurs to take the risk and work these long hours? Just as there may be no single solution as to how to motivate employees, there may be no unique answer to the question of what

motivates entrepreneurs. However, the following three accounts of small-business owners provide a glimpse of what keeps entrepreneurs motivated.

THE LUNCH TRUCK Ivan and Anya immigrated to the United States from Eastern Europe just after the fall of the Soviet Union. They had found life in their old country harsh. Both had been assigned work as laborers in the local government factory. Their particular plant was built to produce war materials during the Second World War, and the large windowless structure had received little maintenance since that time. Beyond the physical conditions, they said the job itself was mind-numbing because workers had no autonomy and little incentive to work harder than the minimum expectations. Their governmentassigned apartment was a 200-square-foot studio; its kitchen was a hot plate and sink. A communal bathroom was shared with three other couples on the floor. Hot water seemed like a luxury because most days the building’s furnace was not functioning. They arrived in the United States virtually penniless, sponsored by a distant cousin. Ivan worked for that cousin in his custodial business and moonlighted as a cab driver. Anya secured a job at a local factory and always volunteered for overtime. Within four years, the couple had paid Ivan’s cousin back the money they borrowed to come to America and had $15,000 in the bank. When they heard that their friend Gus was selling his

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lunch truck, they paid $12,000 cash for the 1987 kitchen-equipped Chevy Step Van and the unofficial rights to a particular parking spot on a local college campus. They had made it! Each morning at 6:00 the couple would restock the truck and drive to campus. When they reached their spot, Anya would jump out and move the 1973 Oldsmobile (that was “saving” their space overnight) to a parking lot approximately one mile away while Ivan parked the truck and set up for breakfast. By the time Anya had completed the walk back, the breakfast crowd was starting to arrive. They served breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and most days it wasn’t until 6:15 in the evening before Anya was walking for the car to once again hold their space overnight. When Anya made it back with the car, they were off in the truck to the local warehouse club to purchase supplies for the next day and then it was home, usually by 8:00 p.m. They worked this schedule six days a week, with Sundays “off,” although they frequently used that time to address maintenance issues with the truck or the Olds. Fourteen hours a day, six days a week, the couple worked their lunch truck with the same pride as if it were the best restaurant in town. The money wasn’t bad. They purchased a small town home and, in a good month, after paying all of their bills they were able to put $200 or $300 into their savings account.

THE EMPIRE BUILDER Mary was the brightest student in her high school class and went to the local campus of her state university on full scholarship. While in college, she lived at home and worked 20 hours a week at a dry cleaners to pay her expenses and even save a few dollars. She graduated debt free and to the disappointment of her advisor, who was pushing her to attend graduate school, Mary stayed on at the dry cleaners as the store’s manager. She had a plan. Three years after her graduation, the storeowner was looking to retire, and Mary, with help from various relatives, small-business loans, and every penny to her name, scraped together the $435,000 to buy the business. As the owner, Mary was “finally able to market the store properly,” and sales grew. With the additional cash flow, within two years Mary purchased a second store, and by the time of her 10-year college reunion she had a dry cleaning empire consisting of eight stores, beating the target of one new store a year. While she still sees growth potential in the dry cleaning business, Mary anticipates that she’ll maximize her firm’s growth potential after opening 15 stores. She is looking at other

businesses as a means of new expansion and has set a goal of matching her projected 15-store revenue with comparable revenue from “new business” by her 25th college reunion. In addition to her work activities, Mary has been active in the local chamber of commerce meetings and was recently named “Businesswoman of the Year.” Through her efforts with her college’s alumni association, she was elected president and was planning “the biggest alumni weekend ever!” While Mary has been resisting the gentle encouragement of several chamber members to run for city council, she’s beginning to reconsider. City council may be a good first step if she wants to pursue a future political career.

THE SERGEANT MAJOR Jim was in the army for 28 years. Enlisting at the age of 18, he found that army life agreed with him. His officers recognized his “innate ability to lead” and as a result, he was promoted through the ranks quickly. He eventually earned the highest enlisted rank possible, sergeant major. His uniform was always so crisp and his back always so straight that he personified discipline. His officers knew him to be expert in military procedures and tactics. The sergeant major was not unnecessarily harsh, but he communicated his expectations in such a manner that one private stated, “No sane person would think of doing any thing else but follow.” While in excellent shape, after 28 hard years in the service, Jim’s body was finally telling him that he wasn’t 18 anymore. The recruits that he had been able to easily intimidate by his prowess in physical training (PT) were starting to keep up on those predawn fivemile runs. The sergeant major could not stomach the thought of a recruit matching him in anything, so he retired. After a meticulous search, Jim purchased the franchise rights to a local specialized pack and ship company. This was a natural fit for Jim as he told the franchise corporate office, “I’ve moved troops and equipment on deployments all over the world, I’m sure I can handle packing grandma’s lamp to ship to the next town over.” Before he even started to look for a location for his store he had the franchise operations and procedures committed to memory. He even submitted improvement ideas to the franchise corporate offices so that he could still be “by the book,” but a “better book.” The franchise corporate office was initially intimidated by Jim’s “powerful persona” but was quickly impressed with his store’s performance. While his first year

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sales were not the strongest, his operation ran like a clock. He had the lowest loss and complaint record in franchise history. Jim attributed his success to his crew. “You give your men a goal and they will achieve it” was how he explained his success to the corporate staff. Now, after owning the business for five years, he still has three of his original five employees. One employee had left to join the Army and the other, with Jim’s encouragement and financial backing, had left to open his own store. Jim’s unit has been a training site for new franchise owners for the past three years. Jim actually wrote the current, new-owner training manual. His oneweek pack and ship “boot camp,” while intense, has had a 100 percent success rate. At the semi-annual owner meetings, Jim is the man to see if you have operational issues or need help with corporate procedures.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How can you apply the motivation theories in this chapter to explain the behavior of the entrepreneurs introduced in this case? 2. When do you think these entrepreneurs will retire? Use the theories in the chapter to justify your response. 3. Is it more challenging to be an entrepreneur rather than work in a large corporation? Explain your answer. 4. What would motivate you to be an entrepreneur? Will that same motivation work in the corporate world? Sources: Written by Dr. Michael Dutch, Greensboro College, Greensboro, North Carolina (2007); Ed Grabianowski, How PayPal Works, December 13, 2005, http://computer.howstuffworks.com/paypal.htm, accessed March 31, 2007; and Dennis Jacobe, “Work Is Labor of Love for Small-Business Owners,” Gallup Poll Tuesday Briefing, August 23, 2005.

Experiential Exercise: Applying Motivation Theory OBJECTIVES 1. To evaluate the merits of different motivation theories. 2. To emphasize the decisions that must be made by managers in motivating people. 3. To apply motivation principles.

RELATED TOPICS The manager’s need to make decisions to succeed. The difficulty of diagnosing situations.

STARTING THE EXERCISE Set up groups of five to eight students to read the facts and the situation facing Margo Williams.

THE FACTS This chapter discussed several popular content theories. These were among the major points: Maslow: motivation involves satisfying needs in a hierarchical order. Herzberg: some job factors are intrinsically satisfying and motivate individuals. McClelland: motives are acquired from a person’s culture. Alderfer: in addition to the satisfaction–progression process proposed by Maslow, a frustration–regression process is at work.

With these four theories in mind, review the work situation currently facing Margo Williams, project engineer director in a large construction company. She’s responsible for scheduling projects, meeting customers, reporting progress on projects, controlling costs, and developing subordinates. A total of 20 men and eight women report to Margo. All of them are college graduates with at least eight years of job experience. Margo has an engineering Ph.D. but only four years of project engineering experience. Her biggest problems involve the lack of respect and response from her subordinates. Margo’s supervisor has considered these problems and assumes that her moderate record of success could be improved if she could correct the situation. Margo is considering a course of action that could motivate her subordinates to show more respect and respond more favorably to her requests.

COMPLETING THE EXERCISE 1. Each discussion group should develop a motivation plan for Margo. The plan should use the content motivation principles discussed in this chapter. 2. After the group has worked together for about 30 minutes, a group leader should present the plan to the class. 3. Discuss each group’s plan for the remainder of the class period.

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Motivation: Organizational Applications

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 6, you should be able to Explain Differences between social learning theory and reinforcement theory. Learn How managers can get higher performance out of their employees by reinforcing their employees’ sense of self-efficacy. 156

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Describe How expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories are used in organizational applications to motivate employees. Define Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and how these rewards influence employee motivation. Explain Different reward programs found in high-performance organizations. Understand The strengths and weaknesses of using nontraditional reward programs in organizations.

Reward or Punishment: The Saga of Stock Options Stock options have become a form of reward for executives and employees in a growing number of organizations. They have replaced salary and bonuses as the most significant part of executive pay in more and more firms. For example, Alan Mulally, CEO of Ford Motor Company, received $666,667 in salary plus $8.68 million in stock options and stock-related awards for his efforts in 2006; this was given to Mulally after four months on the job as CEO of the automotive company. While companies’ stock price fluctuations (especially the downturns) have robbed options of some of their luster, most option-granting firms are doing more of the same—offering more options at lower prices. When he stepped down in September 2001, CEO Jack Welch (also see case at end of this chapter) was given a lavish preretirement gift of 3 million company stock options. Valid until September 2010, the securities gave Welch the right to buy GE shares at the stock’s gift time price of 573/8. Although GE’s stock price is currently trading below this gift time price, the deal gave Welch the opportunity to make millions of dollars. Stock options are not just granted to GE’s CEOs; there are some 36,000 employees currently participating in the company’s stock option program. On GE’s income statement, giving Welch and employees the nice gift (reward) for a job well done costs nothing. Is this an accounting sleight of hand? Is it motivational to GE employees? In the real world, stock options are not free. Proxy statements use footnotes to explain options and their true costs. Options involve taking stocks and awarding them to GE employees. This means that wealth has been transferred, and the stock value of company shareholders is diluted. When Welch and other GE employees exercise their options, new shares have to be issued. This means there are more shares in the market, which in turn means the stake of existing shareholders is reduced. When Welch received the gift of stock options, he had a future claim on the company. It was the equivalent of someone putting a lien on your house. Stock options cost organizations like Ford and General Electric something in the future. From a reward perspective they are good for Welch or anyone else receiving them, but they dilute the ownership stake of others. Those employees in a firm who do not have stock options may not view them as no-cost rewards, but as gifts that primarily go to the top executives and certain managers. A large reward for one person, even Jack Welch, may be distressing to other employees. Sources: Adapted from http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=24203 (accessed on May 11, 2010); Anonymous, “A Good 4 Months for Mulally: $28 Million,” Automotive News, April 9, 2007, p. 54; Diane Brady, “GE: When Execs Outperform the Stock,” Businessweek, April 17, 2006, p. 74; “Jack’s Booty,” The Wall Street Journal, September 10, 2002, p. A12; Justin Fox, “The Amazing Stock Option Sleight of Hand,” Fortune, June 25, 2001, pp. 86–92; and Geoffrey Calvin, “The Great CEO Pay Heist,” Fortune, June 25, 2001, pp. 64–70.

In Chapter 5, we examined four content (need hierarchy, ERG, two-factor, and learned needs) and two process (expectancy and equity) theories of motivation concerning specific motivators of people and the processes people undertake to achieve preferred outcomes. While these issues are critical, it is also clear that most employees want to work and do a

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good job and that management’s role is to provide an organizational environment that facilitates high levels of performance and effectiveness.1 With that in mind, in this chapter we examine how the motivational process works in organizational settings. The two application-oriented process theories of motivation presented in this chapter are (1) reinforcement and (2) goal setting. However, because behavior and its influences are the focus of these theories, we must first examine the process by which workers acquire these behaviors—namely, how they are learned. Finally, the issue of rewarding employee behaviors will be illustrated and discussed.

Learning

learning Process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice.

Learning is one of the fundamental processes underlying behavior and, in turn, motivation. Most behavior within organizations is learned behavior. Perceptions, attitudes, goals, and emotional reactions are learned. Skills—for example, programming a computer or counseling a troubled employee—can be learned. The meanings and uses of language are learned. Learning is the process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice. The words relatively enduring signify that the change in behavior is more or less permanent. The term practice is intended to cover both formal training and uncontrolled experiences. The changes in behavior that characterize learning may be adaptive and promote organizational effectiveness, or they may be nonadaptive and ineffective. For example, a sales division of a large mobile phone company like AT&T or Verizon may send 100 of its entry-level salespeople to learn skills (e.g., listening, negotiation, relationship building) to enable them to sell more effectively. The goal is to have nearly all of these employees apply and practice the information they learned in training after they return to their regular sales positions. The effectiveness of the training program can be measured in terms of new sales created, value increase of each sale, customer retention rate, and so forth. A number of approaches have been proposed to explain the various ways in which this learning may occur.

Social Learning social learning Albert Bandura’s view that behavior is a function of continuous interaction between cognitive (person), behavioral, andenvironmental determinants.

Albert Bandura of Stanford University illustrated how people acquire new behavior by imitating role models (learning vicariously). Social learning refers to the fact that we acquire much of our behavior (e.g., hitting a golf ball, giving a speech, using a computer program) by observation and imitation of others in a social context. The Bandura-inspired view of behavior is that it is a function of both personal characteristics and environmental conditions. According to Bandura, social learning theory explains behavior in terms of a continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants.2 Bandura stresses the point that cognitive functioning must not be ignored in explaining, understanding, and modifying individual behavior.3 The opening vignette on stock options emphasizes that social learning among employees may be positive or negative.4 Social learning theory introduces vicarious learning (modeling), symbolism, and selfcontrol. We imitate parents, friends, heroes, teachers, coaches, mentors, and other respected leaders because we identify with them. Each of us also uses symbolism as guides for our behavior. For example, we know better than to pull the exit release handle on the airplane because of our mental picture of the consequences of a sudden loss in cabin pressure; we envision successfully achieving personal goals to motivate ourselves; and we use mental reminders to remember a customer’s name. We also attempt to exercise self-control by not smoking, not drinking excessively, and not physically throwing out of the office the person who makes a personally disparaging remark about our family or work ethic.

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self-efficacy Belief that one can perform adequately in a situation. Has three dimensions: magnitude, strength, and generality.

Pygmalion effect The enhanced learning or performance that results from others having positive expectations of us.

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A central part of social learning theory, which was introduced in Chapter 4, is the concept of self-efficacy, defined as the belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation.5 Self-efficacy has three dimensions: magnitude, the level of task difficulty a person believes she can attain; strength, referring to the conviction regarding magnitude as strong or weak; and generality, the degree to which the expectation is generalized across situations. An employee’s sense of capability (Can I do the job?) influences his perception, motivation, and performance.6 We rarely try to do a job or task when we expect to be ineffective. How would you like to try to stop Kobe Bryant (Los Angeles Lakers) from scoring in a basketball game? How would you like to write a speech as emotion-packed as Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address? We often avoid people, settings, and situations when we don’t feel up to the required level of performance. Self-efficacy judgments influence our choices of tasks, situations, and companions, how much effort we’ll expend, and how long we’ll try. How hard and long a student pursues a course or an area of study depends more on his sense of self-efficacy than on actual ability. Self-efficacy has been related to other motivation concepts. Edwin Locke and associates suggested that self-efficacy provides an integrating mechanism between learning theory and goal-setting approaches.7 Feedback is important in formulating efficacy perceptions that interact with goal setting to enhance performance motivation. Self-efficacy may also be related to effort-performance relationships in expectancy motivation theory. Both goalsetting and expectancy theories will be discussed later. The impact of culture on self-efficacy is beginning to be realized.8 A concept that has a potential effect on self-efficacy is the Pygmalion effect, which refers to enhanced learning or performance that results from others having positive expectations of us. That is, the fact that others believe us capable of high levels of performance may lead us to perform at that level. Some believe that self-efficacy may be involved in the Pygmalion effect through the persuasive influence of others holding positive expectations.9 A leader’s expectations about job performance might be viewed as an important input to the employees’ perceptions of their own levels of efficacy.10 For example, if a manager believes sincerely that her employee is ready for a promotion (even though the employee isn’t so sure), then this expectation of success will often bolster the employee’s selfconfidence that he will in fact succeed in the new position. The strength of the persuasion would be influenced by the leader’s credibility, previous relationship with the employees, influence in the organization, and so on. It also may be related to the gender of the leader, as the Pygmalion effect has been found to have more impact among male than among female leaders.11 However defined and whatever their impact, expectations play a major role in influencing behavior.

Operant Conditioning operant conditioning Learning that occurs asa consequence of behavior.

operants Behaviors that can be controlled by altering reinforcers andpunishments that follow them.

In another perspective, learning often occurs as a consequence of behavior. This type of learning is called operant conditioning. The person most closely associated with operant conditioning is the late world-famous behaviorist B. F. Skinner. Behaviors that can be controlled by altering the consequences (reinforcers and punishments) that follow them are referred to as operants. An operant is strengthened (increased) or weakened (decreased) as a function of the events that follow it. Most workplace behaviors are operants. Examples of operant behaviors include performing job-related tasks, reading a budget report, pulling a defective part off a production line, listening to a customer’s complaint about poor service, and coming to work on time. Operants are distinguished by virtue of being controlled by their consequences. In operant conditioning, the desired response may not be present in the subject. Teaching a subordinate to prepare an accurate weekly budget report is an example of operant conditioning. The manager works with the subordinate and reinforces him as he successfully

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FIGURE 6.1 An Example of Operant Conditioning

behavior modification Approach to motivation that uses principles of operant conditioning, achieving individual learning by reinforcement. In this text, used interchangeably with term organizational behavior modification.

organizational behavior modification (OBM or OB Mod) Operant approach to organizational behavior. In this text, used interchangeably with term behavior modification.

S1

R1

S2

R2

A memo instructing subordinate to prepare budget

Preparing weekly budgets

Receiving valued praise from superior

A sense of satisfaction

Conditioned stimulus

Conditioned operant response

Reinforcing stimulus

Unconditioned response

(Antecedent)

(Behavior)

(Consequence)

completes the various steps involved in preparing an accurate budget. Figure 6.1 illustrates the general form of the operant conditioning process. The relationships of S1 → R1 → S2 → R2 are called the contingencies of reinforcement.12 This sequence is also described as the ABC operant mode. A designates the antecedent or stimulus that precedes the behavior B, while C is the consequence, the result of the behavior. Skinner believed that such a sequence will be acted out in the future if it proves to be adaptive for the individual.13 The term more often used to describe operant conditioning principles applied to individuals is behavior modification (also called B-mod and behavior mod). Thus, behavior modification is individual learning by reinforcement. Organizational behavior modification or OB Mod (also indicated as OBM) is a more general term coined to designate “the systematic reinforcement of desirable organizational behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted organizational behavior.”14 Thus, OB Mod is an operant approach to organizational behavior. Organizational has been added to indicate that the operant approach is being used in work settings. In this discussion, the terms behavior modification and organizational behavior modification are used interchangeably.

Principles of Operant Conditioning positive reinforcement Action that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior.

Several principles of operant conditioning can aid managers attempting to influence behavior. Reinforcement is an extremely important principle of learning. In a general sense, motivation is an internal cause of behavior, while reinforcement is an external cause. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positively valued consequence follows a response to a stimulus. Thus, positive reinforcement is anything that both increases the strength of response and induces repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement.15 These positive reinforcers could include items such as raises, bonuses, or promotions or less tangible things such as praise or encouragement. Without reinforcement, no measurable modification of behavior is likely to take place. Managers often use positive reinforcers to modify behavior. In some cases, reinforcers work as predicted; for example, positive reinforcement has been shown to be very effective in reducing accidents and producing safe behaviors at the workplace.16 However, in other cases, they don’t modify behavior in the desired direction because of competing reinforcement contingencies. When the receipt of reinforcers isn’t made contingent or dependent on the behavior desired by the manager, desired behaviors don’t occur. Also, giving reinforcers long after the occurrence of the desired behaviors decreases the probability of the recurrence of the behavior because the connection between the two is more difficult to make. Increasingly, organizations are tying rewards and systems of positive reinforcement to corporate values.17 For example, Conoco made environmental criteria a component of the incentive system. Likewise, Chemical Bank has set up programs to positively reinforce employee actions

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negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior because the behavior removes some painful or unpleasant stimulus.

punishment Undesirable consequence that results in the suppression (decrease in frequency) of the behavior that brought itabout.

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that lead to better customer service. Mary Kay Cosmetics, as a way to reinforce the importance of sales, lavishes its top saleswomen with rewards, including the famous “pink Cadillac.”18 Johnson & Johnson rewards its employees by behaving in a manner that reflects the company’s credo. The credo (i.e., the firm’s moral compass) was written by founding family member Robert Wood Johnson in 1943 and puts the needs of Johnson & Johnson’s patients, doctors, and nurses first.19 Monetary rewards aren’t the only type of positive reinforcers shown to be effective. Nonfinancial rewards, such as recognition programs, flexible hours, leaves of absence, time off, and merchandise incentives, can also be used.20 Peer pressure, involvement, and pride have been shown to be as influential as money in producing desirable actions.21 The dual powers of financial reinforcement and personal recognition are potent motivational forces. Negative reinforcement refers to an increase in the frequency of a behavior following removal of something that is displeasing (e.g., an undesired situation) immediately after the response. An event is a negative reinforcer only if its removal after a response increases the performance of that response. A familiar example of negative reinforcement during the summer in Phoenix and Houston is turning on the car air conditioner on a stiflingly hot day. Turning on the air conditioner (the behavior) usually minimizes or terminates an aversive condition, namely being hot (negative reinforcer). This increases the probability of turning on the air conditioning when the car is hot. Similarly, exerting a high degree of effort to complete a job may be negatively reinforced by not having to listen to a nagging boss. By working hard, the employee can keep the nagging boss away. The unpleasant boss is removed because the employee works hard. Punishment is an undesirable consequence of a particular behavior.22 A professor who takes off 10 points for each day a paper is late is using punishment. A mechanic who doesn’t hand in his report and is suspended for one day with a loss of pay is being punished. Punishment, when applied, is sending the message to not do something. Some people believe that punishment is the opposite of reward and is just as effective in changing behavior. Others consider punishment a poor approach to learning for several reasons: 1. The results of punishment aren’t as predictable as those of reward. 2. The effects of punishment are less permanent than those of reward. 3. Punishment is frequently accompanied by negative attitudes toward the administrator of the punishment, as well as toward the activity that led to the punishment.

extinction Decline in response rate because of nonreinforcement.

Despite the potential costs of using punishment, it has been and will continue to be used as a method of altering behavior. For example, punishing a worker who deliberately treats a customer rudely may be an economically necessary way of altering behavior. (However, there might be ways of dealing with the problem other than punishment.) The point is that punishment and its use depend on the situation and on the manager’s style of altering behavior. Punishment is discussed in more detail in the next chapter. Extinction reduces the frequency of behavior because positive reinforcement is being withheld. When positive reinforcement for a learned response is withheld, individuals continue to practice that behavior for some period of time. If this nonreinforcement continues, the behavior decreases and eventually disappears. The decline in the response rate because of nonreinforcement is defined as extinction. For example, a member of a work team may have gotten into the habit of telling jokes at team meetings because people laughed at them (positive reinforcement). If the team began to feel that the jokes were a time waster and made an effort not to laugh, over time the team member’s joke telling is likely to diminish. While extinction is a major form of behavior modification, it is less likely than the other approaches to be used in organizational settings because it is more passive (i.e., withholding of reinforcement) than the active styles preferred in the workplace.

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An important base for these four important principles is Thorndike’s classic law of effect: Of several responses to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) . . . will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (punishment) . . . will be less likely to occur.23

The idea that the consequences of behavior—reward or punishment—are critical in determining future behavior remains an important foundation for the use of operant conditioning in organizational settings. Recall that positive reinforcement occurs when a positively valued consequence (e.g., a promotion) follows a response to a stimulus. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior causes an undesirable factor to be taken away (e.g., the nagging boss). Punishment occurs when an undesired behavior is followed by a negative consequence (e.g., loss of pay). In extinction, the behavior is weakened by the withdrawal of something positive.

Behavior Modification: A Managerial Perspective Behavior modification is based on the assumption that behavior is more important than its “psychological causes,” such as the needs, motives, and values held by individuals.24 Thus, a behaviorist such as B. F. Skinner focuses on specific behaviors and not on such intangibles as esteem needs or personality structure. For example, a behaviorist, told that an employee isn’t performing well, would probably ask, “What specific behaviors led to this observation?” Specific and distinguishable behaviors are the most important bases in developing any behavior modification plan to correct a performance problem. In addition to the attention devoted to these behaviors, there’s an emphasis on the consequences of behavior. For example, suppose that all new management trainees are given a twoday training program on preparing budget reports. Shortly after the training sessions, managers notice that most of the reports are still not being prepared correctly. One explanation may be that the training program was ineffective. However, behaviorists might approach the problem from a different direction. First, they could determine whether the trainees understand the importance of correct reports. They might then find out which trainees are turning in correct reports and what consequences, if any, are being received by these trainees. It could be that turning in correct reports results in nothing, that there are no observable consequences. In the same manner, submitting an incorrect report may also result in no consequences, positive or negative. The behaviorists’ findings might result in developing a program of positive and negative consequences (e.g., recognition, praise, a meeting with the boss to go over mistakes). Behaviorists believe people tend to repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences. This principle could serve as a cornerstone in improving the report accuracy of trainees. The proposed application of behavior modification in organizations follows a five-step problem-solving process similar to that in Figure 6.2.25 FIGURE 6.2 Applied Behavior Modification: A Manager’s Step-by-Step Procedure Pinpoint Identify specific, important behavior

Measure Baseline point for critical behaviors

ABC Analysis Assess antecedentbehaviorconsequence

Feedback informs changes

Action Plan Choose among: • Positive or negative reinforcement • Extinction • Punishment

Evaluate Assess important behavior, comparing baseline versus after-action behavior

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TABLE 6.1 Performance Analysis Questions Source: Adapted from Thomas K. Connellan, How to Improve Human Performance: Behaviorism in Business and Industry (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 51.

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Explore Antecedents Does the employee know what is expected? Are the standards clear? Have they been communicated? Are they realistic? Identify Behaviors Can the behavior be performed? Could the employee do it if his or her life depended on it? Does something prevent its occurrence? Assess Consequences Are the consequences weighted in favor of performance? Are improvements being reinforced? Do we note improvement even though the improvement may still leave the employee below the company standards? Is reinforcement specific?

ABC analysis Analysis of antecedents, behavior, and consequences when investigating work- or job-related issues.

TABLE 6.2 Using the ABC Analysis on an Absenteeism Problem Source: Adapted from Fred Luthans and Mark Martinko, “An Orgaizational Behavior Modification Analysis of Absenteeism,” Human Resource Management, Fall 1976.

1. Managers must identify and define the important behavior. A behavior is pinpointed when it can be accurately observed and reliably recorded. To be pinpointed as an important behavior, there must be positive answers to these questions: (a) Can it be seen? (b) Can it be measured? 2. Managers must measure or count the occurrences of the pinpointed behavior. This count provides managers with a clear perspective on the strength of the behavior under the present, or before-change, situation. The count serves as the means of evaluating any later changes in behavior. Managers can graph these data to determine whether the behavior is increasing, decreasing, or remaining the same.26 3. Managers conduct an analysis of the ABCs of the behavior,27 also called functionally analyzing the behavior.28 In ABC analysis, referred to earlier, the A designates analyzing the antecedents of B, the pinpointed critical behaviors; and the C indicates the associated consequence. Specific analyses of the ABCs attempt to determine where the problems lie. Thomas Connellan has developed a set of performance analysis questions to get at the problem source (Table 6.1).29 The ABC analysis permits managers to consider performance analysis questions important in formulating any specific program. In analyzing absenteeism, for example, managers using a question format and the type of framework displayed in Table 6.2 are systematically viewing the problem of absenteeism in terms of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. A. Antecedent(s)

B. Behavior(s)

C. Consequence(s)

Family problems (spouse; children) Personal health/illness Jury duty No transportation Company policies Group norm Friends visiting Injured on way to work Hangover No child care facilities Lack of proper tools or clothing

Staying home Shopping Oversleeping Getting up late Attending sporting Working at home Visiting others Serving on jury In emergency room at hospital At doctor’s office

Public reprimand Private reprimand Written record and reprimand Reduction in pay Suspension Firing Social isolation from group

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4. The first three steps in an applied behavior modification program set the stage for the actual actions by the manager. The goal of operant conditioning is to strengthen desirable and observable critical performance behaviors and to weaken undesirable behaviors. The fourth step involves the strategies for accomplishing these goals, which are discussed earlier in this section. They are positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, punishment, and extinction. Managers prefer to use positive reinforcement in most applied behavior modification programs. But identifying positive reinforcers isn’t always easy. The most obvious approach for managers to take is to ask subordinates what rewards they prefer. Another identification method is to use attitude surveys asking job reward preferences questions. Note also that punishment and extinction by themselves often do not give guidance to employees as to how they can improve their performance. 5. The fifth step involves evaluation. A major weakness in many applied motivational programs is that formal evaluations aren’t conducted. Another weakness is the fact that evaluations tend to place too much focus on the negative aspects of employees’ performance.30 The evaluation of an applied program permits the manager to trace and review changes in behavior before and after the implementation of an action program. Evaluation permits managers to measure performance on an ongoing basis.31 Furthermore, evaluation can provide feedback to managers on the behaviors exhibited. This feedback enables managers to make necessary and timely corrections in the program. Employees in the next OB at Work feature emphasize how important it is to receive feedback.

Research on Reinforcement Theory The sample list of organizational behavior modification users includes Weight Watchers, Michigan Bell Telephone, Ford Motor Co., American Can Company, United States Postal Service, Warner-Lambert Company, Chase Manhattan Bank, Procter & Gamble, and Standard Oil. A survey of empirical research on organizational behavior modification (OBM) examined research involving quantity of performance, quality of performance, absenteeism, employee safety, employee energy conservation and theft, and customer service.32 The researchers found generally strong evidence that OBM is making and can make a positive contribution to organizational behavior. Absenteeism rates, quality of production, reduction in workplace violence, and employee safety behaviors appear to improve more often than not when organizations use OBM.

Criticisms of Behavior Modification Critics have attacked behavior modification on a number of grounds. A frequent concern with the use of reinforcers is that there’s no “real” change in behavior: the person is just being “bribed” to perform. Bribery refers to the illicit use of rewards to corrupt someone’s conduct. In reinforcement, however, outcomes are typically delivered for behaviors designed to benefit the person and the organization. Thus, this criticism, although logical, really doesn’t apply to the reinforcers usually used in organizations. Another perspective is offered by Locke, who believes that to view reinforcements as modifying responses automatically, independent of a person’s beliefs, values, or mental processes, is simply a wrong way to view human behavior. He says that this theory is simple and appealing but that the facts don’t support it. He claims that people can learn by seeing others get reinforcement and by imitating those who are reinforced (see social learning, discussed earlier). There’s also self-reinforcement, which operant conditioning theorists ignore.33 Another criticism focuses on the point that individuals can become too dependent on extrinsic reinforcers (e.g., pay). Thus, behavior may become dependent on the reinforcer and may never be performed without the promise of the reinforcer. For example, if a firm’s salespeople

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Feedback Is Motivational

Employees are so hungry for guidance in today’s pressurefilled workplace that many would prefer ongoing input from the manager to a hike in pay. Sure, cash bonuses and raises are welcome rewards. But they’re rarely enough. Scant feedback can lead to turnover, a concern that has employers increasing both the amount and quality of job critiques. “I like to know there’s something to the workplace that’s more than just a paycheck,” says Bob, 29, an investment advisor in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin. “I’d rather be someplace I enjoy being, and feedback just goes along with it.” A survey for American Express looked at what workers most want from employers. It found the number one desire, at 46 percent, was personal feedback. That compares with the 32 percent who said they most wanted financial rewards. Some trends behind the demand: •

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Worker autonomy. Today’s employees have more decisionmaking authority, but the increased responsibility also means many want to know where they stand. “You get uncomfortable day to day not knowing how you’re doing,” says Randolph, 58, a computer operations manager in Providence, Rhode Island. “The feeling that someone cares far outweighs a money value.”

Decreasing loyalty. In an age of job-hopping and mass layoffs, employees are looking for ways to document their worth to future employers. Companies that provide employees with opportunities for promotions and good performance reviews can motivate (and retain) employees more than with just high pay.

Fewer guarantees. Promotions and pay raises no longer are granted to workers solely based on years of service. Performance has become the catalyst for getting ahead.

“As employees see this, they naturally want to know how they’re doing,” says a management consultant in Princeton, New Jersey. The feedback can have an effect on productivity and boost morale. A survey by Menlo Park, California–based staffing

service OfficeTeam found that 66 percent of respondents believe performance review sessions have a favorable impact on job motivation. “There is a sense that employees aren’t getting enough mentoring as organizations get flatter,” says Peter Cappelli, author of The New Deal at Work, on managing a mobile workforce. “People are hungry for it.” Aware of the need, employers are turning to frequent job reviews, daily chats, and performance appraisals that include input from co-workers, customers, and subordinates. Managers may be ranked on nontraditional goals such as fostering work–family balance and encouraging teamwork. But getting stuck with bad managers can leave some wary of any feedback at all. Others argue that talk is cheap. “I’ve been around long enough to know that you must put your money where your mouth is,” says Lisa, 40, a factory worker in Island Pond, Vermont. “How many times have people said meaningless things? I want to take what somebody tells me to the bank.” That’s not to say guidance doesn’t last. More than 20 years ago, Walter was a young chemical engineer toiling in a laboratory, when his boss walked in. “You’re doing a wonderful job,” he remembers the supervisor saying, “I’m so glad you’re part of the department.” It was just a few words, but the input was such a valuable motivator that Walker, now 61 and retired, still talks of the lesson he learned: It takes more than cash to buy loyalty. “Many other bosses have just taken my contributions for granted and felt that their response was more money,” says Walter. “The real motivator was genuinely realizing my successes and telling me so.” Sources: Karen Auby, “A Boomer’s Guide to Communicating With Gen X and Gen Y,” Businessweek, August 14, 2008, pp. 63–64; Paul Falcone, “Preserving Restless Top Performers,” HRMagazine 51, no. 3 (March 2006), pp. 117–22; Annette Simmons, “When Performance Reviews Fail,” Training and Development 57, no. 9 (September 2003): pp. 47–51; Stephanie Armour, “Cash or Critiques: Which Is Best?” USA Today, December 16, 1998, p. 6B; and Anne Faircloth, “How to Recover from a Firing,” Fortune, December 7, 1998, pp. 239–40.

work hard only when commissions are large, what will happen to productivity during slow periods when the company can’t afford to pay large commissions? A last criticism, especially in the case of positive reinforcement, is that its utilization may be more perceived than actual.34 Surveys on interpersonal relations find that while more than 80 percent of supervisors claim they frequently use forms of positive reinforcement (such as praise, recognition, and rewards), less than 20 percent of employees report that their supervisors express forms of appreciation more than occasionally. This is especially important given that some younger Gen Y employees (born after 1978) seek higher levels of feedback at work than do Gen X (born between 1965 and 1978) and Baby Boomer (born between 1946 and 1964) employees.35 In

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light of these concerns, managers should remember three important principles when expressing appreciation and reinforcing good behavior: 1. Describe the desired behavior in specific terms, avoiding sweeping generalizations. 2. Explain why the behavior was helpful to the organization. 3. Regardless of the type of positive reinforcement given, it should always be accompanied by a personal expression of thanks. When considering these criticisms, we must keep in mind that the relevance and impact of any management approach may be greatly affected by the national culture where that approach is used. An excellent example of this is the study by Welsh, Luthans, and Sommer, in which they had managers in the largest textile plant in Russia use three different motivational styles toward their employees.36 They found that while extrinsic rewards and behavioral management produced positive results, a strategy involving participation on the part of the workers (an approach endorsed and desired in the United States) not only did not increase performance but may have actually decreased production. Although more work is needed in this area, the significance of cultural and related factors on the appropriateness of managerial activities has to be carefully evaluated.

Behavioral Self-Management

behavioral selfmanagement (BSM) Process whereby a person faces immediate response alternatives involving different consequences; and selects or modifies behavior by managing cognitive processes, causes, or consequences.

Quitting smoking, dieting, experiencing personal growth and development, and sticking with an exercise regimen each involve the notion of self-control. Regulating one’s own motivation has received some attention in the organizational literature.37 The concepts of self-motivation have evolved primarily from the social learning theory literature and related work in self-control. In the organization literature, this process has been referred to as behavioral self-management (BSM). Self-management, which is often called self-control, is defined as follows: “A person displays self-control when, in the relative absence of immediate external constraints, he engages in behavior whose previous probability has been less than that of alternatively available behaviors.”38 In essence, this suggests that there are times when individuals will choose behaviors that they have not chosen consistently in the past, and this selection may be based on the expectation of positive outcomes in the future from this course of action. For example, a college studentmay decide that it’s time to “buckle down” and begin applying himself to his courses with the hope that he can earn higher grades (and increase his GPA). Several features of self-management need to be noted. Self-management is a process whereby a person is faced with immediate response alternatives (e.g., to work moderately hard or to work very hard to complete the job) involving different consequences. Self-management behavior may include personal performance goals, self-instructions on how to achieve goals, self-administered consequences, a plan to behave in a particular manner, or a strategy for personally developing a set of skills. In BSM, a person is assumed to have some control over her behavior, cognitive processes, and contingent consequences. Indeed, this control is the basis for the notion of empowerment, a broad movement toward providing workers and teams with greater input into their jobs.39 At the workplace or outside of it, everyone practices BSM to some degree,40 and it appears to have an important impact on performance within various groups such as managers of joint ventures.41 Usually we set certain behavior standards and reward or punish ourselves according to personal judgments we make about how our behavior relates to these standards. Similar to the example above, when a student works hard all semester in a challenging course in college and ends up earning an A, he’s likely to feel that hard work pays off (i.e., disciplined study behavior leads to a high grade).

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FIGURE 6.3 Kanfer’s SelfRegulation Methods

STAGE 2: Self-evaluation STAGE 1: Self-monitoring • ”A new supervisor— I wonder if my performance will be acceptable?” • “I hope so.”

• “My previous supervisor said I was an excellent employee.” • “I need to find out what the new supervisor considers excellent performance.”

STAGE 3: Self-reinforcement • ”I really did a great job on that new project.” • ”My new supervisor seemed excited when I finished it on time.” • ”She’s a lot like my previous supervisor.”

A Self-Regulation Model

goal setting The process of establishing goals. In many cases, it involves superior and subordinate working together to set subordinate’s goals for specified period.

Because effective self-management appears to offer potential benefits to employees and organizations, a general framework could prove useful. Frederick Kanfer has proposed a three-stage model that has managerial application value. Figure 6.3 shows the Kanfer model of self-regulation as applied to a work situation. According to the model, when a nonroutine event (e.g., new boss, unexpected Web site crash) disrupts the normal work pattern, a person begins to practice self-examination (what Kanfer designates as self-regulation). Being assigned to a new supervisor doesn’t happen every day, so it would be considered a nonroutine occurrence. The event would initiate such thoughts as: What does the new supervisor expect from me? How am I currently performing? How will I need to perform to project a good impression on the new supervisor? This is stage 1, self-monitoring. Selfevaluation (stage 2) would involve comparing the previous supervisor with the new one and deciding whether previous performance will be sufficient to impress the new supervisor. In stage 3, self-reinforcement, the person would exercise his own reinforcement for performing at an acceptable level. Kanfer proposes that self-regulation occurs quickly and without much awareness by a person.42 BSM may appear to be simply another variant of organizational behavior modification. However, there’s a distinct difference in terms of the importance of cognitive processes in BSM, as it combines the principles of learning with an emphasis on human interactions in a social setting. In contrast to OBM, which focuses specifically on antecedents, behavior, and consequences, the behavioral self-management approach places more stress on the uniquely human cognitive processes involved in acquiring and maintaining patterns of behavior without the input of other people.

Goal-Setting Theory

conscious goals Main goals that a person is striving for and is aware of when directing behavior.

Since 1968, when Edwin Locke presented what’s now considered his classic paper,43 there has been considerable and growing interest in applying goal setting to organizational problems and issues. Locke proposed that goal setting was a cognitive process of some practical utility. His view was that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. That is, “one of the commonly observed characteristics of intentional behavior is that it tends to keep going until it reaches completion.”44 Once a person starts something (e.g., a job, a new project), she pushes on until a goal is achieved. Intent plays a prominent role in goal-setting theory.45 Also, the theory places specific emphasis on the

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importance of conscious goals in explaining motivated behavior. Locke has used the notion of intentions and conscious goals to propose and provide research support for the thesis that harder conscious goals result in higher levels of performance if these goals are accepted by the individual.

The Goal-Setting Process goal Specific target that an individual is trying to achieve; the target (object) of an action.

goal specificity Degree of quantitative precision of goal.

goal difficulty Degree of proficiency or level of goal performance being sought.

goal intensity The process of setting a goal or determining how to reach it.

goal commitment Amount of effort actually used to achieve goal.

A goal is the object of an action; it’s what a person attempts to accomplish. For example, landing five new customers, training twenty new employees, cutting direct costs by $10,000, or decreasing absenteeism in a department by 12 percent is a goal. Many examples could be given of the successful use of goal-setting techniques in achieving important organizational outcomes, such as safety improvement.46 Frederick W. Taylor has had a direct influence on the current thinking about goals and goal-setting practices. Locke stated that Taylor used assigned goals as one of his key techniques of scientific management. Each employee was assigned a challenging but attainable goal based on the results of time and motion study. The individual’s methods for achieving the assigned goal (e.g., the tools used, the work procedures followed, the pacing needed to do the job) were spelled out in detail.47 Thus, Locke pointed out the significant influence of Taylor in his formulation of goal setting. Locke also carefully described the attributes of the mental (cognitive) processes of goal setting. The attributes he highlighted are goal specificity, goal difficulty, and goal intensity. Goal specificity is the degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal. Goal difficulty is the degree of proficiency or the level of performance sought. Goal intensity pertains to the process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it.48 To date, goal intensity hasn’t been widely studied, although a related concept, goal commitment, has been considered in some studies. Goal commitment is the amount of effort used to achieve a goal. Figure 6.4 portrays applied goal setting from a managerial perspective, showing the sequence of events for such a goal-setting program. The key steps in goal setting are (1) diagnosing whether the people, the organization, and the technology are suited for goal setting; (2) preparing employees via increased interpersonal interaction, communication, training, and action plans for goal setting; (3) emphasizing the attributes of goals that should be understood by a manager and subordinates; (4) conducting intermediate reviews to make necessary adjustments in established goals; and (5) performing a final review to check the goals set, modified, and accomplished. Each step needs to be carefully planned and implemented if goal setting is to be an effective motivational technique. In too many applications of goal setting, steps outlined in or issues suggested by Figure 6.4 are ignored.

Goal-Setting Research Locke’s 1968 paper contributed to a considerable increase in laboratory and field research on goal setting. Another force behind the increase in interest and research was the demand of managers for practical and specific techniques that they could apply in their organizations. Goal setting offered such a technique for some managers.49 The degree of support for goal setting as a viable motivational technique is captured best by the authors of a review of the effects of goal setting on task performance. They stated, If there is ever to be a viable candidate from the organizational sciences for elevation to the lofty status of a scientific law of nature, then the relationships between goal difficulty, specificity, commitment, and task performance are most worthy of serious consideration.50

Research has shown that specific goals lead to higher output than do vague goals such as “Do your best.”51 Field experiments using clerical workers, maintenance technicians, marketing personnel, truckers, engineers, typists, and manufacturing employees have

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FIGURE 6.4 Goal Setting as Applied in Organizations Diagnosis for goal-setting readiness

Preparation for goal setting Participation via increased interaction

People Communication History of change

Implementation

Formal training and development

Job and technology

Mission, plan, and strategy of company

Establishment of action plans

1. Specificity 2. Difficulty 3. Intensity 4. Commitment

Goal-setting attributes

1. Frequency 2. Exchange of ideas 3. Modifications

Intermediate review Core steps

Establishment of criteria for assessing effectiveness

Feedback

1. Discussion 2. Analysis 3. Development 4. Recycling

Final review

Improved motivation to • Perform • Plan • Organize • Control

Anticipated goal-setting results

compared specific versus do-your-best goal-setting conditions.52 The vast majority of these studies support, partly or in total, the hypothesis that specific goals lead to better performance than do vague goals. In fact, in 99 out of 100 studies reviewed by Locke and his associates, specific goals produced better results.53 One study in particular highlights the practical significance of setting specific goals.54 As part of a logging operation, truck drivers had to load logs and drive them to a mill for processing. Analysis of each trucker’s performance showed that the truckers often weren’t filling their trucks to the maximum allowable weight. For the three months in which underloading was being studied, trucks were seldom loaded in excess of 58 to 63 percent of capacity. Researchers believed that underloading resulted from management’s practice of simply instructing the truckers to do their best in loading the trucks. Researchers concluded that setting a specific goal could be the operational impetus needed to improve the situation. They assigned a specific goal of 94 percent of capacity to the drivers. No driver, however, was disciplined for failing to reach the assigned goal. No monetary rewards or fringe benefits other than praise from the supervisor were given for improvements in performance. No specific training or instruction was given to the managers or drivers. Within the first month after the goal was assigned, performance increased to 80 percent of the truck’s limit. After the second month, however, performance decreased to 70 percent. Interviews with drivers indicated that they were testing management’s promise not to take disciplinary action if goals weren’t met. After the third month, performance exceeded 90 percent of capacity. This performance was being maintained seven years after the original research.

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The results of this field experiment are impressive. They suggest that setting specific goals can be a powerful force. The value of goal setting is reflected in a statement of the researchers: The setting of a goal that is both specific and challenging leads to an increase in performance because it makes it clearer to the individual what he is supposed to do. This in turn may provide the worker with a sense of achievement, recognition, and commitment, in that he can compare how well he is doing now versus how well he has done in the past and, in some instances, how well he is doing in comparison to others.55

The Difficulty Factor Generally, the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance. But a point of diminishing returns appears to be a real issue in goal difficulty. Although laboratory and field studies find that people with high (difficult) goals consistently perform better, there is a critical point.56 If and when a goal is perceived as so difficult or threatening that it’s virtually impossible to attain, the result is often frustration rather than achievement. For example, an assessment of the difficulty level of the United Way’s fund-raising goals in one study points up the issue of frustration.57 The more difficult the goal, the more money was raised. This was true, however, only when the goals were seen as attainable by the fundraisers. When the goals were viewed as unreachable, fund-raisers’ morale suffered. On the other hand, goals must be of a realistic difficulty so that they are not set too low.58 Goal acceptance is extremely important to any discussion of goal setting’s effectiveness. One method to enhance goal acceptance is to permit individuals to participate in goal setting. Researchers suggest that when an individual faces a difficult goal, participative goal setting enhances goal acceptance more than assigned goal setting. In a two-part study, researchers found that participative and representative goal setting (in which group-elected members represented others in negotiating goals) significantly increased individual goal acceptance; consequently, individual goal acceptance significantly contributed to performance.59 Locke has contrasted goal setting with the expectancy and need-for-achievement explanations of motivation.60 Figure 6.5 highlights differences in the explanations of the goal difficulty–performance relationship proposed by these three theories. Expectancy theory predicts that increased performance will result from easier goals, since the probability of success (and also the probability of being rewarded) increases. The need-for-achievement prediction is that difficult goals improve performance up to a point but that when goals are too difficult, performance suffers. One explanation of the goal difficulty–performance relationship is presented as graph III in Figure 6.5. Locke predicts that a person’s performance (A) will increase as goal difficulty increases (assuming that the person is committed and has the ability to perform), until a ceiling of performance (B) is reached. Individuals who lack commitment to difficult goals have decreasing or poor performance (C).

Adding the Participation Factor In one of the more interesting studies of goal setting, a jointly designed series of experiments was conducted to study the effect of participation on goal commitment and performance.61 Locke served as a third-party mediator of two views held by Latham and Erez. Latham proposed that when goal difficulty is held constant, there are virtually no differences in goal commitment or performance, regardless of whether the goal was assigned or set participatively. Erez believed that participation in goal setting is crucial to goal commitment; that is, if a person doesn’t participate, there’s little commitment to accomplish the goal. A series of four experiments by researchers at the University of Maryland and the University of Washington tested the two viewpoints of goal setting. The results indicated that there was no effect of value for participation on goal commitment or performance in

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FIGURE 6.5 The Goal Difficulty–Performance Relationship: Three Motivation Views I. Need achievement

II. Expectancy theory

High

High

Job performance

Job performance

Low

Low Easy

Moderate

Hard

Easy

Goal difficulty

Moderate

Hard

Goal difficulty

III. Goal-setting theory B

High

Job performance

C A

Low Easy

Moderate

A = Performance of committed person with ability B = Performance of committed person working at full capacity C = Performance of person who lacks commitment

Hard

Goal difficulty

any of the four experiments. The study is commendable for its completeness, the participation of researchers who disagreed with each other’s previous findings, and the use of a third-party mediator. Each of these features contributes to improved public confidence in organizational research. But despite Locke’s comments that the results of laboratory studies generalize well to the field, the laboratory setting is a weakness of the study.62 Organizational practitioners would pay more attention to the results of such an innovative study if employees and work settings were used. Can these results be confirmed in organizations in the United States and around the world? As Eastern European countries attempt to improve the performance of their economies and enterprises, will goal setting be effective? The economies of Hungary, Poland, and Russia may not be prepared for participative goal setting. The past cultures of these and other countries may significantly moderate the effects, if any, of goal-setting programs. After years of having decisions handed down from top-level administrators and bureaucrats, when they were told what to do, many individuals aren’t used to participating in goal setting or prepared to do so.

Individual Differences Scattered throughout the goal-setting literature are studies that examine the effects of individual differences on goal setting. Most of these studies have dealt with the effects of education, race, and job tenure on the goal-setting process. A study involving electronics technicians found that goal difficulty (challenge) was significantly related to performance

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only for those technicians with 12 or more years of education. For technicians with less education, goal clarity (i.e., having a clear understanding of the goal) and goal feedback (i.e., receiving feedback on how results matched the goal) were significantly related to performance.63 In a field experiment, loggers working under assigned, participative, and do-your-best conditions were compared. Researchers found that participative goal setting affected the performance of the less educated loggers but not of the more educated loggers.64 One study examined three explanations of why participation in goal setting may increase job performance: the social factor of group discussion, the motivational factor of being involved in the goal-setting process, and the cognitive factor of information sharing.65 Results of this study of white-collar employees indicated that the social and motivational factors increased performance quantity, learning the task, goal acceptance, group commitment, and satisfaction. Another recent study examined conflict as a goal-setting variable. Both a laboratory experiment and a field study of college professors suggested that conflicting goals can lead to decreases in performance.66 These findings were not related to how committed subjects were to the goal, which goals were most important, or the strategies used to approach the task. This research points out the need to pay attention to the total situation experienced by employees who are faced with many (and sometimes contradictory) goals. It also suggests that consideration should be given to the kinds of goals that employees set for themselves.

Criticisms of Goal Setting It is important to recognize that there are arguments against using goal setting or becoming too enthusiastic about it.67 For example, researchers have found that when goals are very difficult and compensation or other organizational rewards are tied to goal attainment, then some employees may engage in unethical behaviors to accomplish them.68 In the early 1990s, Sears Automotive service advisors in California were accused of engaging in unethical practices with customers as a way to meet internal goals and receive incentive compensation.69 Some managers and researchers have leveled other criticisms against goal setting, including: Goal setting is rather complex and difficult to sustain. Goal setting works well for simple jobs (clerks, typists, loggers, and technicians), but not for complex jobs. Goal setting with jobs in which goals aren’t easily measured (teaching, nursing, engineering, accounting) has posed some problems. Goal setting encourages game playing. Setting low goals to look good later is one game played by subordinates who don’t want to be caught short. Managers play the game of setting an initial goal that’s generally not achievable and then finding out how subordinates react. Goal setting is used as another check on employees. It’s a control device to monitor performance. Goal accomplishment can become an obsession. In some situations, goal setters have become so obsessed with achieving their goals that they neglect other important areas of their jobs. Under the right conditions, goal setting can be a powerful technique for motivating employees. When used correctly, carefully monitored, and actively supported by managers, it can improve performance. (Goal difficulty and goal acceptance are two attributes that management must consider.) The clear implication for managers is that getting employees to set and strive to attain specific, relatively hard goals can generate a strong motivational force.

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Reviewing Motivation Chapters 5 and 6 to this point have portrayed a number of popular, empirically tested, and practical theories of motivation. That the theories are typically pitted against one another in the literature is unfortunate, since each theory can help managers better understand workplace motivation. Each theory attempts to organize, in a meaningful manner, major variables associated with explaining motivation in work settings. The content theories concentrate on individuals, placing primary emphasis on people’s characteristics. Each of the process theories has a specific orientation. Reinforcement theory focuses on the work environment, virtually ignoring the notion of individual needs and attitudes. Expectancy theory emphasizes individual, job, and environmental variables; it recognizes differences in needs, perceptions, and beliefs. Equity theory primarily addresses the relationship between attitudes toward inputs and outcomes and toward reward practices. Goal-setting theory emphasizes the cognitive processes and the role of intentional behavior in motivation. Each of the theories presented has something to offer managers if used correctly, and various parts of the theories are complementary in many respects. The psychologists and social psychologists who formulated these theories were articulate in explaining needs, motives, and values. They weren’t, however, so astute at explaining what managers could do to motivate employees. And despite the abundance of complementary theories and research, many managers still choose to ignore the academically generated theories of motivation. If anything, the discussion of theories and research indicates that instead of ignoring motivation, managers must take an active role in motivating their employees. Nine specific conclusions have been reached: 1. Managers can influence employees’ motivation. If performance needs to be improved, then managers should intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement. Motivation can be managed. 2. Managers must remember that ability, competence, and opportunity all play a role in motivation. A person with little ability or few skills will have a difficult time being productive. 3. Managers need to be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals. They must also consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards. 4. Continuous monitoring of employees’ needs, abilities, goals, and preferences is each individual manager’s responsibility. The only constant is change. 5. Managers must attempt to channel self-motivated behavior into productive results. Some individuals practice a high degree of self-regulation and personal motivation. 6. Managers as role models can be influential in motivating employees. Social learning occurs on a regular basis, and managers must be aware that their style, techniques, and work behavior are being observed and can be easily imitated. 7. Managers need to provide incentives for their employees. When employees note that valued outcomes can be achieved through performance, a major part of the motivation strategy has succeeded. 8. Establishing moderately difficult goals to direct behavior is an important part of any motivational program. 9. Managers should try to provide employees with jobs that offer equity, task challenge, variety, and opportunities for need satisfaction. If motivation is to be energized, sustained, and directed, managers have to understand needs, intentions, preferences, goals, reinforcement, and comparison. Failure to learn about these concepts results in many missed opportunities to motivate employees in a positive manner.

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TABLE 6.3 The Predictive Power of Selected Motivation Theories* Theories Need-Based†

Productivity Absenteeism Job satisfaction

Reinforcement

Behavioral Self-Management

Expectancy

Equity‡

6 8

6 8f

7 8

7 8 6

6

Goal Setting

9 6#

*Ratings are based on a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 the highest. † Includes theories of Maslow, Herzberg, Aldefer, and McClelland. ‡ Based primarily on studies of pay issues. § Primarily found for employees with a high need for achievement. f Limited number of studies. # Satisfaction levels are higher if goal program is considered fair, meaningful, and more than control mechanism.

Table 6.3 briefly summarizes how well the various themes and approaches predict productivity, absenteeism, and job satisfaction. Ratings are based on available empirical research conducted in organizations primarily in the United States and Canada. Ratings also use the judgments of researchers, anecdotal information, and managerial opinions.70 While the data presented aren’t scientifically validated in every instance, they’re based on multiple sources of information. The knowledge and insight provided by summarizing theories, empirical studies, and opinions can provide the basis for developing motivational reward programs.

Organizational Reward Systems Managers who understand and are comfortable with a number of motivational approaches are better prepared to design effective and motivational reward programs. Theories set the tone and the direction of how to create a motivational atmosphere. Applying the theoretical principles to the work environment is what an organizational reward system attempts to accomplish. Numerous changes are taking place in how performance is evaluated and rewards are distributed. Requests to eliminate piece rate incentive systems,71 convert all reward systems to group-based approaches, shift risk from employers to employees by making a greater percentage of compensation variable in nature (e.g., bonuses), and legislate how much executives can earn are being presented as universally perfect ways to address rewards. Although parts of each suggestion have some validity, such radical proposals are unlikely to influence the majority of managers. Instead of radical changes and across-the-board debunking, progressive approaches are likely to draw more attention. Pay systems based on competencies and contributions made, team-based incentives, and rewards focusing on improved results are becoming more widely considered and implemented systems. As organizations become more involved in global transactions, business pay and rewards will be more closely linked to overall unit and total company results.72 Instead of eliminating individual reward systems and accepting group-based reward systems, it’s better to examine the positive and negative motivational features of various reward systems.

A Model of Individual Rewards The main objectives of reward programs are (1) to attract qualified people to join the organization, (2) to keep employees coming to work, and (3) to motivate employees to achieve

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FIGURE 6.6 The Reward Process Feedback

Intrinsic rewards

Ability and skill Motivation to exert effort

Performance results: Individual Experience

Performance evaluation

Satisfaction

Extrinsic rewards

high levels of performance. A model illustrating how rewards fit into an organization’s overall policies and programs is useful to managers. Figure 6.6 presents a model that integrates motivation, performance, satisfaction, and rewards. It suggests that the motivation to exert effort isn’t enough to cause acceptable performance. Performance results from a combination of the effort of an individual and that person’s ability, skill, and experience. Management evaluates each individual’s performance either formally or informally. As a result of the evaluation, management distributes extrinsic rewards. The rewards are evaluated by the individual. Individuals also receive or derive intrinsic rewards from the job. To the extent that rewards are adequate and equitable, the individual achieves a level of satisfaction. A significant amount of research has been done on what determines whether individuals are satisfied with rewards. Edward Lawler has summarized five conclusions based on the behavioral science research literature:73 1. Satisfaction with a reward is a function of both how much is received and how much the individual feels should be received. This conclusion is based on the comparisons that people make. When individuals receive less than they feel they should, they’re dissatisfied. 2. An individual’s feelings of satisfaction are influenced by comparisons with what happens to others. People tend to compare their efforts, skills, seniority, and job performance with others’. They then attempt to compare rewards; that is, they compare their own inputs with others’ inputs relative to the rewards received. Chapter 5 discussed this input–outcome comparison when introducing the equity theory of motivation. 3. Satisfaction is influenced by how satisfied employees are with both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are valued in and of themselves; they’re related to performing the job. Examples would be feelings of accomplishment and achievement. Extrinsic rewards are external to the work itself; they are administered externally. Examples would be salary and wages, fringe benefits, and promotions. There’s debate among researchers as to whether intrinsic or extrinsic rewards are more important in determining job satisfaction. Most studies suggest that both rewards are important.74 One clear message from the research is that extrinsic and intrinsic rewards satisfy different needs. 4. People differ in the rewards they desire and in the relative importance different rewards have for them. In fact, preferred rewards vary at different points in a person’s career, at different ages, and in various situations. 5. Some extrinsic rewards are satisfying because they lead to other rewards. For example, a large office or an office that has carpeting or drapes is often considered a reward because it indicates the individual’s status and power. Money is a reward that leads to such things as prestige, autonomy, security, and shelter.

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O B AT W O R K

Rewarding a Diverse Workforce

With an increasingly diverse workforce, managers are finding that they may have to consider employees’ cultural heritage when it is time to reward them. In fact, there are those who believe that many of our management and leadership models are culture-bound; that is, they do not consider the possibility that different personalities may flourish in different national cultures. There are also those who believe that national cultural differences are overstated. Having said all of this, let us consider the following: •

Employees from banks in Hong Kong prefer financial rewards such as salary, salary increases, and individual, team and organizational performance incentives; whereas bank employees from Finland prefer more supportoriented rewards like job security, relationships with colleagues and customers, and work/life balance.

Asians are often taught traditions such as enryo, which requires, among other things, modesty in the presence of one’s superiors. Deference and reserved behavior are highly valued. As a result, they may feel reluctant to ask for rewards and may also be less likely to complain or ask questions. They may often not respond positively to recognition.

The manager of a Native American was so impressed with his work that he honored him in a visible ceremony in front of his peers. The employee did not return to work for several days because he was very uncomfortable with public praise, especially in front of his Native American peers.

Sales executives often accompany their praise of members of the sales force with well-intentioned touching on the arms and pats on the back. Unfortunately, many Asian Americans feel extremely uncomfortable with this behavior.

A manager asked her primarily Filipino staff to let her know of any problems they were having with some new equipment that had recently been installed in the company’s warehouse. The manager assumed that by delegating this

responsibility to the group, positive feelings would result. Instead, the employees used every possible means including makeshift remedies to ensure that she never found out any problems existed. To the group, their inability to handle equipment problems meant losing face. •

When doing business in China, American expatriate managers need to be careful regarding how they reward Chinese employees. In the United States, it is not uncommon for an individual to receive a clock after working for the same company for a certain number of years. If American expatriate managers were to transfer this tradition of reward to China, they would be very surprised at the outcome. The Chinese word for “clock” is related to funeral or death. Thus, the message behind such a “reward” may be interpreted as “drop dead.”

If managers consciously seek to learn about the cultural differences among groups, it seems that unintentional mistakes such as the above can be avoided. It is clear that managers have made mistakes in the past in their assumptions about males and females, minorities and whites, and old versus young. As our workforce continues to diversify, empathy and sensitivity to differences among people will be a critical managerial skill. Sources: Flora F. T. Chiang and Thomas A. Birtch, “An Empirical Examination of Reward Preferences within and across National Settings,” Management International Review 46, no. 5 (2006): 573–596; Irwin Speizer, “Incentives Catch On Overseas, But Value of Awards Can Too Easily Get Lost in Translation,” Workforce Management 84, no. 13 (November 2005): 46–49; Patricia Digh, “One Style Doesn’t Fit All,” HRMagazine 47, no. 11 (November 2002), pp. 79–82; Marlene Duchatelet, “Cultural Difference and Management/Leadership Models,” American Business Review, June 1998, pp. 96–99; Livia Markoczy, “Us and Them,” Across the Board, February 1998, pp. 96–99; Taylor Cos, Jr., Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice (San Francisco: Berrett Koehler, 1993); and Kenneth N. Wexley and Stanley B. Silverman, Working Scared: Achieving Success in Trying Times (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993).

The relationship between rewards and satisfaction isn’t perfectly understood, nor is it static. It changes because people and the environment change. But there are important considerations that managers can use to develop and distribute rewards. First, rewards must be sufficient to satisfy basic human needs. Federal legislation, union contracts, and managerial fairness have provided at least minimal rewards in most work settings. Second, individuals tend to compare their rewards with those of others. People make comparisons regardless of the quantity of the rewards they receive. If inequities are perceived, dissatisfaction occurs. Finally, as the OB at Work illustrates, managers distributing rewards must recognize individual differences. Unless individual differences are considered, the reward process invariably is less effective than desired. Any reward package should (1) be sufficient to satisfy basic needs (e.g., food, shelter, clothing), (2) be considered equitable, and (3) be individually oriented.75

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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards extrinsic rewards Rewards external to the job, such as pay, promotion, or fringe benefits.

intrinsic rewards Rewards that are part of the job itself: the responsibility, challenge, and feedback characteristics of thejob.

Figure 6.6 classifies rewards into two broad categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are rewards external to the job, such as pay, promotion, or fringe benefits; intrinsic rewards are those that are part of the job itself, such as the responsibility, challenge, and feedback characteristics of the job. In either category, the first consideration is how the rewards are valued by employees. Individuals put forth little effort unless the reward has value. Both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards can have value.76

Extrinsic Rewards Financial Rewards: Salary and Wages Money is a major extrinsic reward. It has been said that “although it is generally agreed that money is the major mechanism for rewarding and modifying behavior in industry . . . very little is known about how it works.”77 To really understand how money modifies behavior, the perceptions and preferences of the person being rewarded must be understood, which of course is a challenging task for managers. Success requires careful attention and observation of employees. In addition, managers must be trusted, so that workers freely communicate their feelings about financial rewards. Unless employees see a connection between performance and merit increases, money isn’t a powerful motivator. In some cases, a well-designed appraisal system can make the pay–performance connection clear to employees. This clarity doesn’t just happen; managers must work hard at communicating the performance–financial reward connection.78 Increasingly, critics charge that the pay–performance relationship should be strengthened for chief executives in large corporations and that Fortune 500 chief executive officers (CEOs) are grossly overpaid. Executive compensation has become a controversial issue. Experts use different statistical techniques to illustrate which executive is the “best bargain” and who’s the “worst buy.”79 Front-page stories contrasting million-dollar paychecks for executives and more layoffs for employees are painful and emotion laden. Critics contend that American executives are paid too much and that their salaries aren’t related to their companies’ performance.80 This inequity is considered to be one reason the United States is competitively being challenged. One study of corporate business units determined that a small difference in pay between lower-level employees and upper echelon managers is associated with high product quality.81 The researchers suggested that the smaller differential may have resulted in higher commitment to organizational goals. The federal government has on a number of occasions reviewed laws to influence executives’ pay. The most controversial suggestions would limit the amount that an executive can be paid by capping it at some absolute level or at some multiple of what the lowest paid worker earns. For example, in 2010, a salary cap of $500,000 was imposed on most of the 45 highest paid employees from several of the companies that received government stimulus funding, including American International Group (AIG), General Motors, Chrysler Group, Chrysler Financial, and General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC).82 The effect of legislation on executives’ motivation to work hard, take risks, and even enter the profession needs to be considered by any politician introducing bills in Congress. Differences across jobs and industries also need to be cautiously considered before executive compensation becomes dictated by law.

Financial Rewards: Fringe Benefits In the United States, organizations spend 35 to 40 percent of their total compensation amount on employee benefits. A Conference Board–Gallup Poll survey indicated that

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74 percent of all workers in America say that employee benefits are crucial to job choice. If limited to only one benefit (beyond money), 64 percent say to provide them with health care.83 In most cases, fringe benefits are primarily financial. But some (such as software maker SAS’s on-site gymnasium) aren’t entirely financial. A major financial fringe benefit in many organizations is the pension plan. Fringe benefits such as pension plans, health insurance, and vacations aren’t usually contingent on employees’ performance. In most cases, they’re based on seniority or length of employment.

Interpersonal Rewards interpersonal rewards Extrinsic rewards such as receiving recognition or being able to interact socially on the job.

recognition Management’s acknowledgment of work well done.

The manager has some power to distribute such interpersonal rewards as status and recognition. Managers and co-workers both play roles in granting job status. By assigning individuals to prestigious jobs, the manager can attempt to improve or remove a person’s status. But if co-workers don’t believe that an employee merits a particular job, status isn’t likely to be enhanced. In some situations, by reviewing performance, managers can grant what they consider to be job changes that improve status. Much of what was just stated about status also applies to recognition. In a reward context, recognition refers to managerial acknowledgment of employee achievement that could result in improved status. Recognition from a manager could include public praise, expressions of a job well done, or special attention.84 The extent to which recognition is motivating depends, as do most rewards, on its perceived value and on the connection that the individual sees between it and behavior. Examples of how performance is recognized at People’s Bank, LifeScan, and Johnson Controls Inc. (Table 6.4) illustrate the vast array of recognition opportunities.

Promotions For many employees, promotions don’t happen often; some never experience even one in their careers. Managers making promotion reward decisions attempt to match the right persons with the jobs. Criteria often used to reach promotion decisions are performance and seniority. Performance, if it can be accurately assessed, is often given significant weight in promotion reward allocations.

Intrinsic Rewards Completion The ability to start and finish a project or job is important to some individuals. These people value task completion. The effect that completing a task has on them is a form of selfreward. Opportunities that allow such people to complete tasks can have a powerful motivating effect.

Achievement Achievement is a self-administered reward derived from reaching a challenging goal. David C. McClelland has described individual differences in those striving for achievement.85 Some seek challenging goals, while others seek moderate or low goals. In goal-setting programs, difficult goals may result in a higher level of individual performance than do moderate goals. Even in such programs, however, individual differences must be considered before reaching conclusions about the importance of achievement rewards.

Autonomy Some people want jobs providing the right to make decisions; they want to operate without being closely supervised. A feeling of autonomy could result from the freedom to do what the employee considers best in a particular situation. In jobs that are highly

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TABLE 6.4 Recognition Approaches Source: Excerpted and adapted from company brochures and Web sites.

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At People’s Bank, Connecticut: All award winners receive the following: • • • • •

Recognition gift. Newsletter announcement. Letter from the president. Managers’ meeting announcement. Letter for their personnel file.

In addition, Excellence and Quality Award winners get their photo and more detailed descriptions of their achievement in the employee newsletter. At LifeScan, a Johnson & Johnson company: What do I receive if I earn a Quality Excellence Award? Achieving a significant improvement in quality is rewarding in itself—it means you’ve helped our products or services better meet our customers’ requirements, and in the process made your job and your co-workers’ more hassle-free. In appreciation for your outstanding quality achievement, you’ll receive a very special dinner for two at any of the Bay Area’s finest restaurants, plus a sweater embroidered with the LifeScan quality logo. In addition, your photo will appear on LifeScan’s Quality Wall of Fame along with photos of other award recipients. Who will present the Quality Excellence Award? Where will it be presented? Your Quality Excellence Award will be presented by one of LifeScan’s officers at a Quarterly Employee Meeting. Your achievement will also be featured in a LifeScan Monitor article. At Johnson Controls Inc.: Chairman’s Award The Chairman’s Award was established in 1985 to recognize employees who continually exceed customers’ expectations. “Customer” includes anyone outside of the company who purchases Johnson Controls’ goods and services, as well as those individuals within the firm who work with the award-winning employees. The Chairman’s Award program is the most prestigious companywide employee recognition program and has the goal of inspiring excellence throughout the firm. The Award is given on an annual basis to those employees who meet or exceed the goals of increasing sales or reducing costs in the following areas: • • • •

Quality. Service. Productivity. Time compression.

Results are achieved through innovation; cross-functional teamwork and activity; and Six Sigma, kaizen, and benchmarking.

structured and controlled by management, it’s difficult to create tasks that lead to a feeling of autonomy.

Personal Growth The personal growth of any individual is unique. Individuals experiencing such growth can sense their development and see how their capabilities are being expanded. By expanding their capabilities, employees can maximize or at least satisfy skill potential. Some become dissatisfied with their jobs and organizations if not allowed or encouraged to develop their skills. The rewards included in this section are distributed or created by managers, work

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

Find the Right Job with the Right Rewards

There are several sources of information that individuals can tap to learn whether a given job provides desired extrinsic (e.g., pay and benefits) and intrinsic (e.g., meaningful work) rewards. In terms of learning about extrinsic rewards, job candidates should pour over the organization’s website, annual reports, and other publically available information to learn about benefits, and career advancement and promotion opportunities. Although information about pay will usually be provided either during the selection process or once an offer is extended, some candidates are successful in getting pay information from current or previous employees. Also, candidates should also check for relevant pay and benefits information that is posted in similar job openings from the organization on several Web-based job search sites like Monster.com, CareerBuilder.com, CollegeReporter. com, Jobfox.com, Linkup.com, and Indeed.com. Learning about intrinsic rewards may be more challenging because it takes time after starting a new job to assess realistically how much responsibility, feedback, and challenge is associated with the position. That being said, candidates should ask the following questions of interviewers, and current or past employees to learn more about the extrinsic rewards related to the job in question: 1. Can you please describe what a typical day in this job is like? 2. What are the primary responsibilities associated with this position?

3. What are some of the key challenges that need to be addressed in order to perform well in this job? Also, job seekers should consult the myriad of resources that help individuals identify and match their personal values and work preferences to those of an organization. The CareerBuilders’ Web site has a work values checklist that might provide job seekers with some insight into which intrinsic, extrinsic, and lifestyle values they want in a job. Also, the classic job seekers’ guide: What Color Is Your Parachute? 2010 by Richard N. Bolles has helped countless individuals for nearly 40 years. With over 10,000,000 copies sold, this book helps guide readers to develop a personalized step-by-step plan (called the Flower Exercise) to help them define the parameters of a job that fits them. By understanding such key factors as what a person likes to do on a daily basis, with whom, where, and so on, they are much more likely to find a job that fits well. Without this personal awareness, then it will be much harder for a job seeker to find a job that provides them with meaningful extrinsic rewards. Sources: See http://career-advice.monster.com/job-search/ career-assessment/work-values-check-list/article.aspx (accessed on May 13, 2010); Brian Burnsed, “Is Your Next Job a Click Away: Know Which Sites Will Be most Beneficial,” U.S. News & World Report, 147(5), 31; Richard N. Bolles, What Color Is Your Parachute? 2010: A Practical Manual for Job Hunters and Career Changers (Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2009).

groups, or individuals. The OB and Your Career above discusses some tips for finding jobs that provide individuals with desired extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Table 6.5 summarizes the rewards we’ve discussed. As the table indicates, managers can play either a direct or an indirect role in developing and administering rewards.

The Interaction of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards The general assumption has been that intrinsic and extrinsic rewards have an independent and additive influence on motivation. That is, motivation is determined by the sum of the person’s intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation.86 This straightforward assumption has been questioned by several researchers.87 Some have suggested that in situations in which individuals are experiencing a high level of intrinsic rewards, the addition of extrinsic rewards for good performance may cause a decrease in motivation.88 Basically, the person receiving selfadministered feelings of satisfaction is performing because of intrinsic rewards. Once extrinsic rewards are added, feelings of satisfaction change because performance is now thought to be due to the extrinsic rewards. The addition of extrinsic rewards tends to reduce the extent to which the individual experiences self-administered intrinsic rewards.89 The argument concerning extrinsic rewards’ potential negative effects has stimulated a number of research studies. Unfortunately, these studies report contradictory results. Some researchers report a reduction in intrinsic rewards following the addition of extrinsic

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TABLE 6.5 Types and Sources of Selected Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

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Sources Type

Manager

Group

Individual

Extrinsic Financial Salary and wages Fringe benefits Interpersonal Promotion

D D D D

D

Intrinsic Completion Achievement Autonomy Personal growth

I I I I

D D D D

Note: D 5 Direct source of the reward. I 5 Indirect source of the reward.

rewards for an activity;90 others have failed to observe such an effect.91 A review of the literature found that 14 of 24 studies supported the theory that extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation;92 10 didn’t support it. Of the 24 studies reviewed, only two used actual employees as subjects. All of the other studies used college students or grade school students.

Rewards, Turnover, and Absenteeism

merit rating A formal rating system applied to employees.

presenteeism Refers to the act of employees who attend work but, due to illness or other medical reasons, tend to underperform their jobs.

Managers may assume that low turnover is a mark of an effective organization. However, some organizations would benefit if disruptive and low performers quit. Thus, the issue of turnover needs to focus on who is leaving as well as on frequency. Ideally, if managers could develop reward systems that retained the best performers and caused poor performers to leave, the overall effectiveness of an organization would improve. To approach this ideal state, an equitable and favorably compared reward system must exist. The feelings of equity and favorable comparison have an external orientation. That is, the equity of rewards and favorableness involves comparisons with external parties. This orientation is used because quitting most often means that a person leaves one organization for an alternative elsewhere. No perfect means exist for retaining high performers. A reward system based on merit ratings should encourage most better performers to remain with the organization. Also, the reward system needs some differential that discriminates between high and low performers. High performers must receive significantly more extrinsic and intrinsic rewards than low performers.93 Absenteeism, no matter for what reason, is a costly and disruptive problem facing managers.94 It’s costly because it reduces output and disruptive because it requires that schedules and programs be modified. Absenteeism in the United States is estimated to cost over $70 billion per year.95 On a related note, a concept known as presenteeism refers to employees who show up to work but due to illness or other medical reasons, tend to underperform in their jobs.96 Some estimates place the cost of presenteeism to U.S. companies at more than $150 billion annually.97 Employees go to work because they’re motivated to do so; the level of motivation remains high if an individual feels that attendance leads to more valued rewards and fewer negative consequences than alternative behaviors.

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Managers appear to have some influence over attendance behavior. They have the ability to punish, establish bonus systems, and allow employee participation in developing plans. Whether these or other approaches reduce absenteeism is determined by the value of the rewards perceived by employees, the amount of the rewards, and whether employees perceive a relationship between attendance and rewards. These same characteristics appear every time we analyze the effects of rewards on organizational behavior.

Rewards and Job Performance Researchers and managers agree that extrinsic and intrinsic rewards can be used to motivate job performance. It’s also clear that certain conditions must exist if rewards are to actually motivate: The rewards must be valued by the person, and they must be related to a specific level of job performance. Chapter 5 presented expectancy motivation theory. According to that theory, people associate every behavior with certain outcomes or rewards or punishments. In other words, an assembly-line worker may believe that by behaving in a certain way she’ll get certain things. This is a description of the performance–outcome expectancy. On one hand, another worker may expect that a steady performance of 10 units a day will eventually result in a transfer to a more challenging job. On the other hand, a worker may expect that a steady performance of 10 units a day will result in his being considered a rate buster by co-workers. Each outcome has a valence, or value, to the person. Because each person has different needs and perceptions, outcomes such as pay, a promotion, a reprimand, or a better job have different values for different people. Thus, in considering which rewards to use, a manager has to be astute in considering individual differences. If valued rewards are used to motivate, they can result in the exertion of effort to achieve high levels of performance.

Rewards and Organizational Commitment commitment A sense of identification, loyalty, and involvement expressed by an employee toward the organization or unit of the organization.

There’s limited research on the relationship between rewards and organizational commitment.98 Commitment to an organization involves three attitudes: (1) a sense of identification with the organization’s goals, (2) a feeling of involvement in organizational duties, and (3) a feeling of loyalty for the organization. Research evidence indicates that the absence of commitment can reduce organizational effectiveness.99 Committed people are less likely to quit and accept other jobs. Thus, costs of high turnover aren’t incurred. In addition, committed and highly skilled employees require less supervision. Close supervision and a rigid monitoring control process are time-consuming and costly. Furthermore, a committed employee perceives the value and importance of integrating individual and organizational goals. The employee thinks of his goals and the organization’s goals in personal terms. Intrinsic rewards are important for developing organizational commitment. Organizations able to meet employees’ needs by providing challenging opportunities, giving feedback, encouraging employee participation and by recognizing achievement when it occurs have a significant impact on commitment.100 Thus, managers need to develop intrinsic reward systems that focus on personal importance or self-esteem to integrate individual and organizational goals and to design challenging jobs.

Reward Systems in High-Performing Organizations The typical list of rewards that managers can and do distribute in organizations has been discussed. We all know that pay, fringe benefits, and opportunities to achieve challenging goals are considered rewards by most people. It’s also generally accepted that rewards are administered by managers through such processes as reinforcement, modeling, and expectancies. Some managers are experimenting with new, innovative, yet largely untested,

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TABLE 6.6 Four Reward Approaches: A Summary and Comparison Reward Approach

Major Strengths

Major Weaknesses

Research Support

Flexible benefits

Because employees have different desires and needs, programs can be tailored to fit individuals.

Administration can become complex and costly. The more employees involved, the more difficult it is to efficiently operate the approach.

Limited, because only a few programs have been scientifically examined.

Banking time off

Can be integrated with performance in that time-off credits can be made contingent on performance achievements.

Organization needs a valid, reliable, and equitable performance appraisal program.

Extremely limited.

Skill-based pay

Employees must clearly demonstrate skill before receiving pay increases.

Training costs to upgrade employee skills are higher than under conventional pay systems. Labor costs increase if employees learn many skills. Employees may “top out.”

Very limited, with no direct skill-based versus conventional pay compensation studies available.

Gainsharing

Can enhance teamwork. Employees focus on objectives, learn more about the organization, and may be more productive.

If plans focus only on productivity, employees may ignore other important objectives.

Limited, but a distinct increase in studies is being reported.

reward programs. Four different reward approaches that aren’t widely tested are flexible benefits, banking time off, skill-based pay, and gainsharing. Table 6.6 summarizes their strengths and weaknesses.

Flexible Benefits Sometimes referred to as cafeteria-style plans, flexible benefit plans allow employees to choose benefits from a menu of options that suit them.101 Having to stay within a given cost limit, employees develop individualized, personally attractive benefit packages that fit their preferences and life stage. Many organizations are shifting from standardized, one-sizefits-all benefit packages to flexible benefit plans as a response to increasing diversity among employees.102 For example, some younger employees in their 20s may choose more vacation time over higher levels of medical insurance. Older employees with families may opt for greater medical coverage for their dependents and more flextime to attend their children’s school events and soccer games. Other employees may take all of the benefits in cash. These programs are growing in popularity as companies attempt to use flexible benefits as a way to attract and retain valued employees.103 For example, Google states the following with regard to their benefits philosophy:

flexible benefit plans Provide individuals with the ability to choose the benefits they prefer rather than a standardized package of benefits that someone else establishes for them.

“We strive to be innovative and unique in all services we provide both to customers and employees, including our benefits and perks offerings. We realize and celebrate that our employees have diverse needs, and that this diversity requires flexible and individually directed support. Our priority is to offer a customizable program that can be tailored to the specific needs of each individual, whether they enjoy ice climbing in Alaska, want to retire by age 40, or plan to adopt 3 children.”104

Using a flexible benefit plan offers some distinct advantages. First, it allows employees to play an active rather than a passive role in deciding on the allocation of fringe benefits. Second, employees receive the benefits of greatest personal value to them. This provides many people with a psychologically uplifting feeling. Third, flexible benefit plans make

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the economic value of fringe benefits obvious to each employee because they force employees to review all of the benefits offerings as they make choices. In many situations, employees grossly underestimate the value of the fringe benefits their employers provide. Some administrative problems are associated with cafeteria plans.105 Because of employees’ different preferences, records become more complicated. For a large organization with a cafeteria plan, a computer system is almost essential to do the recordkeeping. Another problem involves group insurance premium rates. Most life and medical insurance premiums are based on the number of employees participating. It’s difficult to predict the participation level under a flexible benefits plan. TRW Corporation placed approximately 12,000 employees on a flexible benefits plan. It allows employees to rearrange and redistribute their fringe benefit packages every year. More than 80 percent of the TRW participants have changed their benefit packages since the plan was initiated.106

Banking Time Off

banking time off A reward practice of allowing employees to build up time-off credits for such behaviors as good performance or attendance.

Time off from work is attractive to most people. In essence, most companies have a timeoff system built into their vacation programs. Employees receive different amounts of time off, based on the years they’ve worked for the organization. Banking time off, an extension of such a time-off reward, is the practice of granting time off for such behaviors as good performance or attendance. That is, a bank of time-off credits could be built up contingent on performance. Today, some organizations are selecting their best performers to attend educational and training programs. One company in Houston selects the best performers and provides them with an opportunity to attend a preferred executive educational program. There is excess demand to attend the program and having the time available allows the selected individuals to attend. Being eligible is largely contingent on the individual’s performance record. Those ultimately selected are given two Fridays off a month to attend classes.

Skill-Based Pay

skill-based pay Wages paid at a rate calculated and based onthe skills employees possess, display, and develop in performing their jobs.

In traditional compensation systems, characteristics of the job performed (e.g., its difficulty and complexity) and local market rates determine an employee’s pay rate and range. But in skill-based pay programs, the employee’s pay depends not on the job, but on her level and number of job-related skills. The skill-based approach attempts to take into account efficiency, or the value added by the worker’s performance.107 In skill-based programs, employees work as members of semiautonomous teams. When hired, an employee is paid a starting rate and receives pay increases as she learns new skills required by the team. Once an employee learns all of the team skills, opportunities are provided to learn skills outside the unit and throughout the organization. Pay increases accompany each new set of skills the employee masters. In skill-based programs that don’t use teams, an employee moves up one pay grade for each job learned, and jobs can be learned in any sequence. Often, pay raises are the same size regardless of the content of jobs learned.108 A five-year study into the effectiveness of skill-based compensation systems found that they encourage employees to acquire and maintain job-related skills.109 Another study by the American Compensation Association found that 33 percent of respondents have skillbased pay systems. Procter & Gamble has implemented such plans in 30 plants, and Polaroid is attempting to become the first organization to pay virtually all employees through skillbased plans.110 Also, Tennessee Eastman Division (the largest unit of Eastman Chemical Co.) allows team members to participate in a “pay-for-applied-skills-and-knowledge” plan that has six levels of learning that cover technical, business, and team interaction skills.111 Skill-based pay programs afford several benefits. The key advantage is a more highly skilled and flexible workforce. Productivity can increase, and supervisory costs are often

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reduced. Employees are more motivated to gain and use their skills; they often perceive their pay as being more equitable; and they have a better understanding of how their jobs fit into the organization.112 Pay levels and training costs, however, often increase. Employees can be frustrated when no openings are available in job areas for which they’re newly trained. And a longterm problem may arise if employees have “topped out”—they’ve learned all the skills needed by the organization and so have nowhere to go. Dissatisfaction and turnover may result.113 Overall, a careful cost–benefit analysis should be conducted before implementing a skill-based pay program.

Gainsharing gainsharing A formula-based group incentive plan in which employees share in an organization’s financial gain from improved performance.

TABLE 6.7 Gainsharing Models Sources: Adapted from Haig Nalbantian, Richard Guzzo, Dave Kieffer, and Jay Doherty, Play to Your Strengths: Managing Your Internal Labor Markets for Lasting Competitive Advantage (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003); and David Beck, “Implementing a Gainsharing Plan: What Companies Need to Know,” Compensation & Benefits Review (January–February 1992): 22.

Gainsharing is a formula-based group incentive plan in which employees share in an organization’s financial gain from its improved performance.114 Gainsharing plans generally include the following three characteristics:115 (1) gainsharing links a percentage of employees’ pay to the achievement of performance goals; (2) a portion of the gains or rewards are shared with all members of the gainsharing unit; and (3) a process is in place so that suggestions for improving productivity can be generated, selected, and implemented. Traditional forms of gain-sharing are the Scanlon Plan, Rucker Plan, and Improshare. These plans are differentiated by the measures discussed in Table 6.7. Gainsharing is the fastest growing incentive program in the United States, partly because of a widespread belief that gainsharing spurs motivation and teamwork. About 26 percent of U.S. companies use the program, with 75 percent of the plans installed since 1980.116

($)(Labor costs) ($)(Revenue)

Scanlon Plan. Scanlon formulas measure the labor costs required to produce services in a given base period; that is, labor costs are compared with sales volume. Assume, for example, that it requires $500,000 in labor costs to generate $1 million in sales. This 0.50 ratio (500,000/1,000,000) becomes the standard for determining incentive awards. In future periods, if labor costs are less than 50% of sales, savings are allocated among employees and the organization on the basis of a preestablished formula.

($)(Labor Costs) ($)(Adj. revenue)

Rucker Plan®. Rucker plans also use labor costs as the numerator. The Rucker Plan, however, attempts to adjust for the effects of inflation by subtracting from sales the costs associated with materials and supplies. The assumption is that in this way inflationary effects are roughly accounted for because increased sales value of goods is offset by the increased material and supply costs. As with the Scanlon plan, any improvements in the ratio are subsequently used to calculate the incentive award.

(Earned hours) Improshare®. This approach establishes a standard that identifies the (Available hours) expected hours required to produce an acceptable level of output. The standard is derived from a time and motion study and/or from an analysis of the group’s historical experience. Any savings resulting from an increase in output in fewer than expected hours are shared between the organization and the employee group on the basis of a preestablished formula. Profit sharing. A profit-sharing plan allows employees to participate in the organization’s profits. A qualified plan must provide a definite predetermined formula for allocating the contributions made to the plan among the participants and for distributing the funds accumulated under the plan after a fixed number of years, after the attainment of a stated age, or upon the prior occurrence of some event, such as layoff, disability, retirement, or severance of employment.

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Researchers conducting a four-year study of a gainsharing program at an auto parts manufacturing plant in the U.S. reported that the implemented employee suggestions contributed to lower production costs.117 Carrier (the heating and air-conditioning equipment manufacturer and a subsidiary of United Technologies) provides an example of how gainsharing works. Carrier set as a benchmark the 1.8 hours that production employees take to make a finished product. When employees beat this benchmark with acceptable-quality products, the labor savings are split 50–50 between the subsidiary and every employee in the plant, from machinists to secretaries to managers. To keep employees informed, plant productivity information is posted daily on the plant bulletin boards, and employees are encouraged to provide time-saving ideas.118 Although many observers believe that an effective gainsharing program can boost productivity, lower production costs, cut absenteeism and turnover, and improve product quality, some critics assert that these effects aren’t long lasting and that research on results is still limited. But most agree that gainsharing is most effective in business units with fewer than 500 employees and when rewards are based on results that employees can directly affect.119 The increased interest and attention paid to group incentive plans is likely to continue. Team performance, evaluation, and reward systems will grow in importance as a shifting away from predominately individually based rewards to a mix of individual and group reward systems gains momentum.120 Since people are being encouraged, directed, and motivated to work more closely together, reward systems must keep pace.121 The strict individual-based systems don’t encourage teamwork. At Johnsonville Foods in Sheboygan Falls, Wisconsin, the 600-member workforce is divided into 14 cross-functional teams. Employees receive base pay according to the market value of their jobs. When a team member believes she’s ready to receive a salary increase, a request to peers is made. Peers decide whether an employee has mastered the skills needed to contribute more. If peers answer yes, a raise is approved. In addition to base pay, employees are eligible for individual and/or team bonuses based on performance. Only if the entire team is profitable and adds value will its members receive a bonus. At Eaton Corporation, team members study daily sales results. Money saved for Eaton is shared by all team members.122 Understanding sales, costs, and profitability helps Eaton team members earn more pay. The team bonus approach has caught on as teams look for bottlenecks and ways to become more efficient and attack waste. A sharing of financial data with management helps each Eaton team to study its performance. Individuals can also earn bonuses for perfect attendance and skill improvement. The link between the performance evaluation system and reward distribution was shown in Figure 6.6. The discussion of this and other linkages in the reward process suggests the complexity of using rewards to motivate better performance. Managers need to use judgment, diagnosis, and the resources available to reward their subordinates individually or as part of a team. Administering rewards is perhaps one of the most challenging and frustrating tasks that managers around the world must perform.

Kohn’s Criticism of Performance-Based Rewards The use of rewards has come to be very natural in work, school, and child rearing at home. Researcher Alfie Kohn (www.alfiekohn.org) offers a compelling set of criticisms of performance-based rewards. He contends that rewards and punishments are just two sides of the same coin—and the coin doesn’t buy very much.123 He suggests that managers must move beyond the use of rewards or punishments. Kohn raises some interesting arguments based on his review and interpretation of the research literature. His arguments are provocative enough that managers should at least be aware of the points he raises.

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These are a few of Kohn’s criticisms: • Rewards injure relationships. Individual rewards for performance create jealousies, envy, competition, and shame. The person not rewarded feels bad. There are always comparisons of what each person received. The result is less interpersonal goodwill and working together. • Rewards are really punishment. An individual who is extrinsically rewarded is reminded each time he or she receives something that the “boss” is in control. Pleasing the boss, being politically correct, and staying in a subservient role are forms of punishment. • Rewards have a Skinner bias. B. F. Skinner is a behaviorist who conducted most of his experiments on rodents and pigeons and wrote most of his books about people. Easy reinforcement application that works on pigeon- and rodent-dominated research is absurd. Emotions in employees are powerful, yet they are ignored by Skinner. • Rewards ignore reason. What makes incentive pay plans and other forms of extrinsic rewards so appealing is that they are quick fixes. Issuing these kinds of rewards does not require managers to pay any attention to why a particular behavior occurred. Why was John’s bonus larger than Mark’s bonus? What were the behavioral differences between John and Mark? • Rewards discourage risk taking. When people are driven by rewards, their focus become narrower, their creativity wanes, and they are not inclined to take risks. Taking risks may distract them from receiving a reward. Keeping a narrower, less risky orientation becomes preferred. Managers should think about the points Kohn raises in his critique. It is unlikely in the foreseeable future to expect performance-based rewards to vanish in work organizations.124 One of Kohn’s limitations is that he provides no organizational suggestions or prescriptions for replacing rewards. His emphasis on child rearing and raising good children without “goodies” (rewards) is not applicable to work organizations without much more compelling translation work on his part. Kohn’s criticisms notwithstanding, it is fair to assume that rewards play an important role in motivating most employees. The most important challenge facing managers is to devise reward schemes that are equitable, reasonable, and meaningful to employees.

Summary of Key Points

• A central part of Bandura’s social learning theory is the concept of self-efficacy, that is, the belief that a person knows that he can perform adequately in a particular situation. • Reinforcement theory relies on applying the principles of operant conditioning to motivate people. A major assumption of operant conditioning is that behavior is influenced by its consequences. • The nature of reinforcements and punishments and how they’re employed influences behavior. Thus, reinforcement scheduling, or the timing of consequences, is an important feature of motivation. • A concept that has evolved from social learning theory is called self-motivation. The concept of self-control is at the core of what’s now called behavioral self-management in the organization literature. • The expectancy theory of motivation is concerned with the expectations of a person and how they influence behavior. This theory provides managers with a means for pinpointing desirable and undesirable outcomes associated with task performance. • Equity theory focuses on comparisons, tension, and tension reduction. To date, most research work on equity theory has involved pay. Equity theory is a more straightforward and understandable explanation of employee attitudes about pay than is expectancy

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• •

Discussion and Review Questions

theory. The manager should be aware that people compare their rewards, punishments, tasks, and other job-related dimensions to those of others. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individual’s goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. Perhaps the most empirically supported approach to motivation, goal setting continues to be refined and studied in laboratory and field settings. Despite impressive supportive studies, goal setting has been criticized as working primarily for easy jobs, encouraging game playing, and operating as another control check on employees. Reward systems seek to attract people to join the organization, to keep them coming to work, and to motivate them to perform at high levels. Organizations typically provide two types of rewards. Extrinsic rewards are those external to the job, such as promotions, fringe benefits, and pay. Intrinsic rewards are associated with doing the job. They include responsibility, challenge, and meaningful work. An individual’s satisfaction with a reward is influenced by: how much is received and how much the person feels should be received; comparisons with what happens to others; how satisfied the person is with both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards; the relative importance of different rewards; and whether the reward leads to other rewards. If effectively used, rewards can affect such individual behaviors as turnover, absenteeism, performance, and commitment. Research evidence showing how rewards influence these behaviors is becoming increasingly available. Nontraditional reward strategies include cafeteria-style fringe benefits, banking time off, skill-based pay, and gainsharing. These nontraditional reward systems each have strengths and weaknesses and are currently being used in many organizations.

1. Feedback helps employees form perceptions of their self-efficacy on the job. Based on what you learned in this chapter, why is important that employees develop a sense of self-efficacy? Explain. 2. As a manager, which type of reinforcement would you most likely use with your employees: positive or negative reinforcement? Discuss the pros and cons of each approach. 3. Why is it exceptionally difficult to distribute rewards based on merit? 4. Describe a situation you’ve previously encountered where reinforcement theory could have been successfully applied. What type of reinforcement schedule would you have used? 5. What ethical considerations should be considered before using a behavior modification program in a work setting? 6. Goal setting is a powerful tool that managers can use to direct employee behavior. However, under what conditions can goal setting lead to undesirable employee outcomes? 7. Are there any intrinsic rewards for students? Discuss any that you believe apply to you. 8. Of the nontraditional reward systems described in the chapter, which system in your opinion would be the most challenging to successfully implement and maintain? Explain. 9. Why is Alfie Kohn’s critique incomplete and not likely to result in the elimination of pay-for-performance reward programs? 10. What can a manager do to increase the intrinsic motivational factors associated with a job?

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Taking It to the Net

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How about Noncash Rewards? “Show me the money!” A large number of managers assume that money is the primary motivator for most employees. However, research with each new generation shows that while money affects people’s decisions to accept or leave a position, it is not always the strongest motivator when a person is on the job. Noncash rewards are used more and more by organizations. By using the Internet and your searching skills, find 10 creative noncash rewards that firms are using as part of their reward strategy. Next, determine three noncash rewards that are important to you in terms of being motivational. Finally, find companies that use the three noncash rewards that you prefer.

Case for Analysis: Jack Welch of General Electric: A Neutron Bomb or a Motivator? Jack Welch, now the ex-chairman of General Electric (GE), has been referred to as “Neutron Jack”—when he enters a GE facility, the building remains standing, but the workers are wiped out. Welch picked up the nickname by cutting more than 100,000 workers from GE’s payroll in his first five years (1981–1986). He eliminated the jobs through layoffs, attrition, and the sale of businesses. When Welch took over at age 45 in 1981, he was GE’s youngest chairman. GE was referred to as a “GNP company,” one whose growth and prosperity never exceeded that of the overall economy. By the time Welch stepped down in the fall of 2001, he had devastated 289 lackluster businesses such as consumer electronics. He bought companies worth $19 billion and sold companies worth $10 billion. Welch set out to create a company that could outpace the economy and thrive even in the toughest times. He utterly transformed GE, reshaping the corporate culture to reflect his relentless energy and informal but rigorous style. Welch sorted operations according to a simple criterion: to keep from being sold or shuttered, each had to be No. 1 or No. 2 in its market. He grouped businesses that he said met the test into a number of groups: services, such as GE Credit Corp. and a unit that maintains nuclear power plants; technology products in high-growth markets, such as jet engines and plastics; and what Welch calls the core businesses. These are the classic big players in such mature industries as light bulbs and electric motors. Currently, GE is a global market leader in 12 large-scale businesses. Welch is a sensitive but no-nonsense man who views the world as competitively tough. He sees global markets coming to be dominated by a few powerful steam-rollers like Philips, Siemens, and Toshiba.

To compete, a firm like GE must be bold, free of bureaucratic red tape, and staffed by self-motivated, proud, and quick-moving managers and employees. People who don’t personally know Welch may fear his blunt, somewhat abrasive style. But those who spend time around him tend to like his intelligence, humor, and openness. GE can be enormously exciting for those in the right places or attuned to the Welch mentality. By all accounts, Welch has transformed the company’s bureaucratic culture to an astonishing degree. In eliminating managerial layers, Welch moved authority for most decisions down to the operating division level. He promotes a feeling of what he calls ownership, urging managers to act like entrepreneurs instead of hired help. Welch says he also promotes free communication: “We are out to get a feeling and a spirit of total openness. That’s alien to a manager of 25 or 30 years who got ahead by knowing a little bit more than the employee who works for him.” Welch says he wants to instill in managers “the confidence to lead and the confidence to share.” Welch’s emphasis on communication and camaraderie is demonstrated by the long hours put in by GE’s corporate officers commenting on drafts of a statement of corporate values that Welch titled, “What We Want to Be.” These values—such as breaking down boundaries within the company, sharing good practices, emphasizing ownership—are more than just paperwork, however, as managers at GE are evaluated using the “Welch matrix”— namely, assessing the attainment of bottom-line results and the level of commitment to these company values. Greater weight is given to the values dimension, as these are difficult to teach and will ultimately produce the numbers desired.

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Welch is not shy about expressing his opinions on how to manage and motivate people. Here are a few of his thoughts: On being a tough manager: I got a raw deal with all those things about tough-guy Jack—fear, intimidation, guns and sticks and whips and chains. If you’re mean, you don’t belong at General Electric. Let me tell you why the name Neutron Jack iswrong. Competitiveness means taking action. Nuking somebody means you kill him. We start a renewal process. When people leave our company, we provide a soft landing. People who have been removed for not performing may be angry, but not one will say he wasn’t treated with dignity. I don’t think anyone would say he was treated unfairly, other than that bad management might have messed up the strategy. We can look ourselves in the mirror every morning and say we did what we could.

On anxiety among employees left at GE: If you’re a middle manager who’s not going anywhere, not trained in tomorrow’s technology, it’s a tough issue, tough all across America. If you look at what we did as a nation and what companies like GE did over the last 25 years, a lot of people didn’t stay current as we went from electromechanical to electronic technology. A lot of methods changed, and a lot of people didn’t change with them. If you’re a middle manager in General Electric who is pretty well plateaued out, do you like what’s happening to you? Probably you’re concerned.

On the role of GE’s top management: [Vice chairman] Larry Bossidy (currently the CEO of GE Credit) knows GE Credit. He built it. I know the plastics business. [Vice chairman] Ed Hood knows jet engines. After that, we start to get into very shallow water. But we know people. We know how to spot good ones more often than we spot bad ones—we don’t bat 1,000—and we know how to allocate resources.

On freedom in the American system: Welch believes that the U.S. system of free enterprise is an advantage that Americans have over the Japanese: It allows people like me to become chairman of GE in one generation; it allows the talented young employees in our company to move up fast. . . . The idea of liberation and improvement for our workforce is not enlightenment—it’s a competitive necessity.

The need for leaders: Call people managers and they are going to start managing things, getting in the way. The job of a leader is to take the available resources—human and

financial—and allocate them rigorously. Not to spread them out evenly, like butter on bread. That’s what bureaucrats do. . . . You clearly want somebody who can articulate a vision. They have to have enormous energy and the incredible ability to energize others. If you can’t energize others, you can’t be a leader.

On self-confidence: Self-confidence is the fuel of productivity and creativity, decisiveness and speed.

GE has not only has survived under Welch’s leadership but is looking youthfully exuberant. During his 20-year reign as CEO, Welch has infused the company with a sense of entrepreneurship, and in doing so has become one of the country’s most admired CEOs. The quality Welch seems to value most in people is selfconfidence, and he works hard to inspire it in others. He’s a believer that people must control their own destinies or others will. Welch’s successor is Jeffrey Immelt, who is working to continue GE’s successful performance. Following in Welch’s footsteps is a challenging job that Immelt faces each day.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Welch practices a hard-nosed management style. How can such a no-nonsense approach create a motivational atmosphere? Does Jack Welch use negative reinforcement, goal setting, or behavioral selfmanagement? Or does he use a combination of techniques? 2. Jack Welch has set goals to be number one in various markets. Assume that it’s both a difficult and an assigned goal. What does goal-setting research say about the effect of such goals on performance? 3. Why does Jack Welch value self-confidence so highly? Does his style of management inspire it in others? 4. What actions does Jack Welch take to encourage employee self-management? Sources: Justin Baer and Francesco Guerrera, “Circuit failure,” Financial Times, November 2008, p. 7; Diane Brady and Kerry Capell, “GE Breaks the Mold to Spur Innovation,” Businessweek, April 26, 2004, p. 88; “Life After GE?” Businessweek, March 8, 2004, p. 76; Harris Collingwood and Diane L. Coutu, “Jack on Jack,” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 2 (February 2002): 88; Warren Bennis, “Will the Legacy Live On?” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 2 (February 2002): 95; Carol Hymowitz, “Jack Welch Confronts a Difficult Final Act to End a Legendary Career,” The Wall Street Journal, June 19, 2001, p. B1; John Huey and Geoffrey Colvin, “The Jack and Herb Show,” Fortune, January 11, 1999, pp. 163–66; John A. Byrne, “Jack,” Businessweek, June 8, 1998, pp. 91–108; and Thomas O’Boyle, At Any Cost: Jack Welch, General Electric, and the Pursuit of Profit (New York: Knopf, 1998).

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Experiential Exercise: Making Choices about Rewards OBJECTIVES

COMPLETING THE EXERCISE

1. To illustrate individual differences in reward preferences. 2. To emphasize that both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are considered important. 3. To enable people to explore the reasons for the reward preferences of others.

RELATED TOPICS Because rewards are so pervasive in organizational settings, they tend to be linked to merit, seniority, and attendance. In fact, they’re so related to organizational behavior that few issues of work life can be discussed without mentioning rewards.

STARTING THE EXERCISE After reviewing Exhibit 1, individuals should work alone to establish their own lists of reward preferences. The instructor should set up groups of four to six students to examine individual preferences and complete the exercise.

PHASE I: 25 MINUTES 1. Using Exhibit 1, each individual should make lists of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. 2. Each person should then rank the items on her list from the most important to least important. 3. From the two lists, rank the eight most important rewards. How many are extrinsic, and how many are intrinsic?

PHASE II: 30 MINUTES 1. The instructor sets up groups of four to six individuals. 2. The individual lists in which the extrinsic and intrinsic categories were developed should be discussed within the groups. 3. The final rank orders of the eight most important rewards decided on within the groups should be placed on a board or chart at the front of the room. 4. Rankings should be discussed within the groups. Which major differences between individualgenerated and group-generated lists were found?

THE FACTS It’s possible to develop an endless list of on-the-job rewards. Exhibit 1 identifies some rewards that could be available to employees.

EXHIBIT 1 Some Possible Rewards for Employees

Company picnics

Smile from manager

Participation in decisions

Watches

Feedback on performance

Stock options

Trophies Piped-in music

Feedback on career progress

Vacation trips for excellent performance

Job challenge

Larger office

Manager asking for advice

Achievement opportunity

Most prestigious job

Vacation

More job involvement

Informal leader asking for advice

Autonomy

Use of company recreational facilities

Pay increase Recognition Company car Entertainment expense account

Office with a window

Bonus

The privilege of completing a job from start to finish

Paid health insurance

Paid sabbatical

Health club membership

Financial counseling

Day care services

College tuition grants

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Experiential Exercise: Valuing Diversity The modern workplace is fast becoming a microcosm of the American population. Minority groups that previously have not had access to management and leadership positions in organizations are now a significant proportion of the overall workforce. Organizations must be able to take advantage of this broader talent pool, ensuring that all people have the opportunity to contribute to the extent of their potential. Not all organizations have evolved to the point where they are able to see beyond a person’s gender or ethnic status and to appreciate people for what they are able to contribute. Eliminating barriers to merit-based advancement is a central part of valuing diversity in the modern workplace.

PURPOSES To heighten your awareness of the issues that companies are facing as the workplace becomes more diverse and to help you understand the issues faced by individuals who work there.

PROCEDURE In this exercise, you will identify and interview a corporate diversity officer, and you will identify and interview a person employed in a business or nonprofit organization whose ethnic or gender status differs from your own to learn about the issues he or she faces in the workplace. 1. Identify and interview a corporate diversity officer: Many organizations today have designated a staff position to handle diversity issues for the firm. You should identify a person who serves this function in a medium to large organization. Contact this person and arrange a one-hour informational interview. Besides developing your own set of questions for the diversity officer, your interview should cover the following issues: • What type of diversity training program does the company have? • What are the major diversity issues the company faces? • What are the major problems faced by women and minorities in the organization?

• Does the company recruit in a way that increases its diversity? • Does the company have an active affirmative action program? 2. Identify and interview a person of different gender or ethnicity. Identify and interview a person of managerial rank or better in a medium to large company who is different in gender or ethnicity from you. This person should not be directly involved in the organization’s diversity function and preferably should be in a line position. Arrange a one-hour informational interview with this person to learn more about the challenges he or she perceives as directly related to his or her gender or ethnicity. This could be a sensitive issue for some people, so you may have to guarantee anonymity to the person you are interviewing. What you want to learn from this interview is how the individual believes her or his career has been affected because of gender or ethnicity. Several issues to explore include these: • Has the person ever been passed up for career advancement based on gender or ethnic status? • Has the person ever felt that he or she has been given special consideration based on gender or ethnic status? • What kinds of organizational barriers does the person feel as a function of her or his gender or ethnic status? • What strategies does the person use to overcome these barriers? 3. Report your findings to the class: After conducting your two informal interviews, be prepared to discuss your findings with the class. You should be able to summarize the types of diversity training programs the organization you identified is using and to describe the effect of this training on the organization. You should also be able to summarize your interview with the individual of different gender or ethnic status. What are the key issues as this person sees them? Has this person benefited from or been harmed by corporate diversity programs?

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Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 7, you should be able to Understand The differences between stressors, stress, and outcomes. Distinguish Among four different categories of stressors. Explain The effects of stress on health. Identify The relationship between stress and social support. Describe The objectives of individual and organizational wellness approaches for the reduction and prevention of stress.

The Need for Work/Life Balance Once, only the salaried elite enjoyed what are now called work/life balance programs. However, demographics indicate that U.S. companies can expect rising demand for flextime and child and elder care programs. By 2020, there will be 27.7 persons aged 65 or older for every 100 working adults, a 28.5 percent increase in just two decades. The more than 75 million Generation Yers (in their 20s to early 30s) representing more than 29 percent of the U.S. population have started their families, and from 2001 to 2011 birth rates could reach 4.3 million annually, equaling the number of births in 1957, the peak year of baby boom births. The work and personal lives of employees are interconnected. Two explanations have been offered regarding the linkage between work and personal lives. The first, the compensation effect, suggests that job and personal life satisfaction are negatively related. That is, a person is assumed to compensate for low work satisfaction by seeking satisfying activities in the personal domain, and vice versa. The second explanation, a spillover view of work and personal life, seems to have more research support than the compensation effect. The spillover view suggests that job satisfaction or dissatisfaction spills over into one’s personal life and vice versa. For example, if an employee has a satisfying job, then this contentment is theorized to exert a positive influence over home and personal life. Organizations are paying more attention to work and family-friendly programs such as child care perks, time off with pay for elder care, flexible work schedules, flexible benefit plans, telecommuting, workout facilities at work, and even laundry and cleaning services. Organizations are watching research results emerge on work/family balance programs. To date, the research evidence in general suggests that employee morale, satisfaction, health, and performance are improved among employees who have received work/life program activities such as onsite child care, time off for elder care, or opportunities to work primarily out of their homes (telecommuting). These programs also reduce the level and intensity of stress that employees face. Sources: K. Gurchiek, “Research Links Workplace Practices, Employee Health,” HRMagazine, December 2009, p. 15; “The Boomers and Gen-Xers,” accessed at www.bhq.com/boomrgenz.htm on April 23, 2007; C. S. Bruck, T. D. Allen, and P. E. Spector, “The Relations between Work-Family Conflict and Job Satisfaction: A Finer-Drained Analysis,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 60 (2002): 226–53; Fred Harmon, Business 2010 (Washington, D.C.: Kiplinger Books, 2001); Charlotte Garvey, “Teleworking HR,” HR Magazine, August 2001, pp. 56–60; and Holly Weeks, “Taking the Stress Out of Stressful Conversations,” Harvard Business Review, July–August 2001, pp. 112–19.

The experience of work and life stress is certainly not new. Our cave-dwelling ancestors faced stress every time they left their caves and encountered their enemy, the saber-toothed tigers.1 The tigers of yesteryear are gone, but they have been replaced by other predators—work

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overload, a nagging boss, computer problems, time deadlines, downsizing, mergers, poorly designed jobs, elder care, marital disharmony, financial crises, terrorism, and accelerating rates of change. These work and nonwork predators interact and create stress for individuals on and off the job. This chapter focuses on the workplace and the stress created in this setting. Much of the stress experienced by people in our industrialized society originates in organizations; much of the stress that originates elsewhere affects our behavior and performance in these same organizations. Thus, work/life balance issues will be reviewed. Research has clearly shown that workplace stress spills over into one’s personal, family, and community life. The opening vignette discussed this work/life balance issue. This chapter focuses on how to reduce and manage stress more effectively. The elimination of stress in a modern society is impossible and beyond the capability of managers in work settings. Experiencing stress every day is a normal routine. What is not routine is stress that is so intense that it becomes unhealthy, dysfunctional, and dangerous. High levels of stress can decrease the satisfaction and productivity of employees, which ultimately prevents many organizations from reaching and maintaining high levels of effectiveness.

What Is Stress?

stressor A potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation.

stress An adaptive response, mediated by individual differences, that is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person.

Stress means different things to different people. From a layperson’s perspective, stress can be described as feeling tense, anxious, or worried. Scientifically, these feelings are all manifestations of the stress experience, a complex programmed response to perceived threat that can have both positive and negative results. The term stress itself has been defined in literally hundreds of ways in the literature. Virtually all of the definitions can be placed into one of two categories, however; stress can be defined as either a stimulus or a response. A stimulus definition treats stress as some characteristic or event that may result in a disruptive consequence. It is in that respect an engineering definition of stress borrowed from the physical sciences. In physics, stress refers to the external force applied to an object, for example, a bridge girder. The response is strain, which is the impact the force has on the girder. In a response definition, stress is seen partially as a response to some stimulus called a stressor. A stressor is a potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation. Stress is more than simply a response to a stressor, however. In a response definition, stress is the consequence of the interaction between an environmental stimulus (a stressor) and the individual’s response. That is, stress is the result of a unique interaction between stimulus conditions in the environment and the individual’s predisposition to respond in a particular way. Using a response definition, we will define stress as an adaptive response, mediated by individual differences, that is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person. We think it is useful to view stress as the response a person makes and to identify stimulus conditions (actions, situations, and events) as stressors. This allows us to focus attention on aspects of the organizational environment that are potential stress producers. Whether stress is actually felt or experienced by a particular individual will depend on that individual’s unique characteristics. Furthermore, note that this definition emphasizes that stress is an adaptive response. Because the great majority of stimuli in the work environment do not require adaptation, they are not really potential stress sources. In the context of the definition of stress, it is important to understand that stress is the result of dealing with something placing special demands on us. Special here means unusual, physically or psychologically threatening, or outside our usual set of experiences. Starting a new job assignment in another country, changing bosses, missing a plane, having

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the computer system fail in the middle of a crucial project, having a performance evaluation meeting with the boss—all of these are actions, situations, or events that may place special demands on you. In that sense, they are potential stressors. We say potential because not all stressors will always place the same demands on people. For example, starting a new job assignment in Beijing or Bangalore may be very stressful to one new expatriate manager and not be stressful at all to another expatriate manager.2 For an action, situation, or event to result in stress, it must be perceived by the individual to be a source of threat, challenge, or harm. If there are no perceived consequences—good or bad—there is no potential for stress. Three key factors determine whether an experience is likely to result in stress. These factors are importance, uncertainty, and duration. Importance relates to how significant the event is to the individual. For example, let us suppose that you are facing a job layoff. The more significant that layoff is to you, the more likely you are to find it stressful. If you expect the layoff to be followed by a period of prolonged unemployment, you will probably view it as a more important event than if immediate reemployment is assured. Uncertainty refers to a lack of clarity about what will happen. Rumors of an impending layoff may be more stressful to some people than knowing for certain they will be laid off. At least in the latter case, they can make plans for dealing with the situation. Frequently, “not knowing” places more demands on people than does “knowing,” even if the known result is perceived as negative. Finally, duration is a significant factor. Generally speaking, the longer special demands are placed on us, the more stressful the situation. Being given a distasteful job assignment that lasts only a day or two may be mildly upsetting, while the same assignment lasting for six months may be excruciating. Most people can endure short periods of strenuous physical activity without tiring; prolong the duration, however, and even the most fit among us will become exhausted. The same holds true for stressors. Stress of short duration is sometimes referred to as acute stress. It may last for a few seconds, a few hours, even a few days. Long-duration stress, on the other hand, is sometimes referred to as chronic stress. Chronic stress may last for months and years. It is the ongoing tension experienced by people of the Middle East and by U.S. soldiers deployed for tours of duty in war-torn Iraq and Afghanistan.3 It may also be the unrelenting pressure of a job one finds no satisfaction in performing, the constant demands made by an unreasonable boss, or the never-ending struggle to advance in one’s chosen career. Hans Selye pointed out the importance of learning about the concept he designated as eustress (i.e., good stress). When stress evokes a positive or uplifting outcome, it is referred to as eustress (from the concept of euphoria). In this chapter, the focus will be on stress that evokes negative outcomes. However, it is reasonable to consider both positive and negative stress when determining how to manage stress effectively in the work setting.

Organizational Stress: A Model For most employed people, work and work-related activities and preparation time represent much more than a 40-hour-a-week commitment. Work is a major part of our lives, and work and nonwork activities are highly interdependent. The distinction between stress at work and stress at home has always been an artificial one at best. With the explosive increase of dual-career couples and individuals who work from home offices, even this artificial distinction has become blurred. The primary concern here, however, is with direct, workrelated stressors. This is due to the emphasis in the book on work-related behavior and performance. Certainly, nonwork stressors are factors in the lives of employees that managers must tune into when and if workers want to discuss them privately.

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FIGURE 7.1 A Model of Stressors, Stress, and Outcomes

Outcomes

Stressors

Individual Level • Role conflict • Role overload • Role ambiguity • Responsibility for people • Harassment • Pace of change

Behavioral • Satisfaction • Performance • Absenteeism • Turnover • Accidents • Substance abuse • Health care claims

Group Level • Managerial behavior • Lack of cohesiveness • Intragroup conflict • Status incongruence

Cognitive • Poor decision making • Lack of concentration • Forgetfulness • Frustration • Apathy

Stress Organizational Level • Culture • Technology • Structure • Politics • Lack of career opportunities • Feedback deficiencies Nonwork • Elder and child care • Economy • Lack of mobility • Volunteer work • Quality of life

Individual Differences • Heredity, age, sex, diet, social support, coping, Type A personality traits, hardiness

Physiological • Increased blood pressure • High cholesterol • Coronary heart disease

The model in Figure 7.1 is designed to help illustrate the link among organizational stressors, stress, and outcomes. Recall from the definition that stress is a response to an action, situation, or event that places special demands on an individual. These occurrences are represented in Figure 7.1 as stressors. We have divided these stressors into four main categories: individual, group, organizational, and extraorganizational. The first three stressor categories are work related. The experience of work-related and extraorganizational stress produces behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. The model suggests that the relationship between stress and outcomes (individual and organizational) is not necessarily direct; similarly neither is the relationship between the stressors and stress. These relationships may be influenced by stress moderators. Individual differences such as age, social support, and personality are introduced as potential moderators. A moderator is a valuable attribute that affects the nature of a relationship. While numerous moderators are extremely important, we focus our attention on three representative ones: personality, Type A behavior, and social support. This framework provides managers with a way of thinking about stress in the workplace. Consequently, it suggests that interventions may be needed and can be effective in improving negative stress consequences. Stress prevention and management can be initiated by individuals or the organization. The intention of most preventive programs is to reduce

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the occurrence, intensity, and negative effect of stress. The management of stress attempts to eliminate or minimize negative consequences of stress.4 The prevention of and management of stress are difficult, as will be illustrated later in this chapter.

Work Stressors: Individual, Group, and Organizational Stressors are those actions, situations, or events that place special demands on a person. In the right circumstances, virtually any occurrence can place special demands on a person; thus, the list of potential stressors is almost infinite. We will examine a sample of the numerous stressors that are relatively common in each of the model’s three work-specific categories (e.g., individual, group, organizational).

Individual Stressors role conflict Occurs when an individual’s compliance with one set of expectations conflicts with compliance with another set of expectations.

qualitative overload Occurs when people feel they lack the ability to complete a job or that performance standards are too high.

quantitative overload Results from having too many things to do or insufficient time to complete a job.

Stressors at the individual level have been studied more than any other category presented in Figure 7.1. Role conflict is perhaps the most widely examined individual stressor.5 Role conflict is present whenever compliance by an individual with one set of expectations about the job is in conflict with compliance with another set of expectations. Facets of role conflict include being torn by conflicting demands from a supervisor about the job and being pressured to get along with people with whom you are not compatible. Regardless of whether role conflict results from organizational policies or from other persons, it can be a significant stressor for some individuals. For example, a study at Goddard Space Flight Center (www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard) determined that about 67 percent of employees reported some degree of role conflict. The study further found that Goddard employees who experienced more role conflict also experienced lower job satisfaction and higher job-related tension.6 It is interesting to note that the researchers also found that the greater the power or authority of the people sending the conflicting messages, the greater was job dissatisfaction produced by role conflict. An increasingly prevalent type of role conflict occurs when work and nonwork roles interfere with one another. The most common nonwork roles involved in this form of conflict are those of spouse and parent. Balancing the demands of work and family roles is a significant daily task for a growing number of employed adults.7 Pressure to work late, to take work home, to spend more time traveling, and to frequently relocate in order to advance are a few examples of potential sources of conflict between work and family. When both spouses are employed, added conflict potentially exists when one partner’s career progress may be negatively affected by the career progression of the other. Virtually everyone has experienced work overload at one time or another, and the incident rate is increasing.8 Overload may be of two types: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative overload occurs when people feel they lack the ability needed to complete their jobs or that performance standards have been set too high. Quantitative overload, on the other hand, results from having too many things to do or insufficient time to complete a job. As organizations attempt to increase productivity, while decreasing work-force size, quantitative overload increases (as does stress). New York law firm Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen & Hamilton was sued by the father of an associate at the firm. The associate, unable to cope with the overload, committed suicide by jumping off the roof of the firm’s building.9 From a health standpoint, numerous studies have established that quantitative overload might cause biochemical changes, specifically elevations in blood cholesterol levels. One study examined the relationship of overload, underload, and stress among 1,540 executives. Those executives in the low and high ends of the stress ranges reported more significant medical problems.10 The underload–overload continuum is presented in Figure 7.2. The optimal stress level provides the best balance of challenge, responsibility,

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FIGURE 7.2 The Underload– Overload Continuum

Optimal

Performance

Sub-optimal Stress Underload • Boredom • Decrease in motivation • Absenteeism • Apathy

hardiness Personality trait that enables a person who possesses it to cope with stressors in such a way that they have minimal impact on the person’s health.

Optimal • High motivation • High energy • Sharp perception • Calmness

Overload • Insomnia • Irritability • Increased errors • Indecisiveness

and reward. The potential negative effects of overload can be increased when overload is coupled with low ability to control the work demand.11 Research suggests that when individuals experience high work demands with little or no control over these demands, the physiological changes that occur persist even after the individual has left work.12 The next OB at Work feature suggests that general pain may be linked to underload or monotonous work. Perhaps the most pervasive individual stressor of all is the unrelenting pace of change that is part of life today. At no other point in the history of industrialized society have we experienced such rapid change in the world around us. The past 50 years or so included the advent of such wonders as electronic communications, satellites, moon landings, organ transplants, laser technology, nuclear power plants, pilotless aircraft, supersonic transportation, artificial hearts, and many other space-age developments. The pace of change within organizations has been no less remarkable. Radical restructuring, offshoring, new technologies, the stunning emergence and demise of many dot-com firms, mergers, acquisitions, internationalization, financial scandals, and renewed emphasis on teams support this commonsense conclusion. On the other hand, many people who experience a great deal of change show absolutely no subsequent health problems. For some reason, these people are strong enough to withstand the negative consequences of large doses of change while others are not. Why responses to change differ is an intriguing question. One organizational researcher, Suzanne Kobasa, proposes that individuals who experience high rates of change without consequently suffering health problems might differ in terms of personality from those who do. She refers to the personality characteristic as hardiness.13 People with the hardiness personality trait seem to possess three important characteristics. First, they believe that they can control the events they encounter. Second, they are extremely committed to the activities in their lives. Third, they treat change in their lives as a challenge. In a longitudinal study to test the three-characteristic theory of hardiness, managers were studied over a two-year period. The study found that the more managers possessed hardiness characteristics, the smaller the effect of life changes on their personal health. Hardiness appeared to offset, or buffer, the negative impact of change. Hardiness is proposed as a factor to reduce stress by changing the way stressors are perceived. The hardy person is able to work through and around stressors, while the less hardy person becomes overwhelmed and unable to cope. The hardy respond by coping, attempting to control, and taking on the stressors as a challenge. This type of response typically results in better behavioral, cognitive, and physiological consequences.14

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Monotonous or Underloaded Pain and Stress

What causes pain to the body independent of physical signs of disease? This question has long interested investigators studying conditions with widespread body pain, including fibromyalgia—a syndrome marked by chronic, unexplained, and severe pain, fatigue, and sleep problems. Some experts ascribe these conditions to a psychological predisposition. Other experts trace its roots to physical trauma, such as a traffic accident. But until recently, no one has explored what happens with a combination of ongoing physical strain and psychological distress—particularly when endured in the line of work. A team of researchers at the University of Manchester in England devoted two years to conducting the first long-term study of widespread pain in relation to taxing labor and lack of job satisfaction. This groundbreaking study focused on the persistent pain experienced by a large, young, healthy crosssection of newly employed individuals. Representing 12 different work environments, jobs ranged from the physically demanding and routinely dangerous (shipbuilder, firefighter, police officer, army officer, forest ranger, soldier) to the relatively safe, but not without pressure (postal worker, retail worker, nurse, dentist, podiatrist, army clerk). The majority of the 896 subjects were all in their 20s. Roughly one-third were men. At the start of the study, coinciding with the start of employment (the first full-time job for many), the participants were

all pain-free. After one year of work, 15 percent of the participants had developed widespread pain. After two years, an additional 12 percent of the workers developed widespread pain. At the one-year mark, the rate of new widespread pain was significantly higher in women than in men, but this difference did not persist. Strikingly, there was no significant difference in the proportion of subjects reporting widespread pain by the follow-up period for any occupational group. Through extensive questionnaires, the researchers identified several factors for the onset of widespread pain. The most significant physical risks were pulling heavy weights and prolonged squatting. In addition to these physical culprits, the team found a strong correlation between widespread pain and two psychosocial factors: low social support and monotonous work (e.g., underload). Lead researcher Elaine F. Harkness, Ph.D., stated: “Monotonous work may lead to increased psychological job stress, which might explain the adverse health outcomes, including the onset of musculoskeletal pain.” Harkness and colleagues suggest that reconstituting work may be a tool at our disposal and one that, given the high prevalence of work disability associated with pain syndromes, is worth a try. Source: Adapted from http://www.fmaware.org (accessed May 12, 2010); “Link between Widespread Pain and Physical Psychological Stress on the Job,” Obesity, Fitness, and Wellness, May 29, 2004, p. 845.

Individual stressors abound. Not only can they cause stress but also a number of negative consequences as well. As we will see later in the chapter, stress consequences can affect both health and a variety of job performance variables.

Group and Organizational Stressors The list of potential group and organizational stressors is a long one. Chapter 8 discusses a number of group characteristics. These include group norms, leadership, and the status hierarchy. Each of these can be a stressor for some group members, as can the different types of group conflict discussed in Chapter 9. One problem in discussing group and organizational stressors is identifying which are the most important ones. In the paragraphs that follow, we briefly highlight what we feel are the more significant stressors.

Participation Participation refers to the extent that a person’s knowledge, opinions, and ideas are included in the decision-making process. It is an important part of working in organizations for some people. Groups and organizations that do not encourage or allow participation will be a source of frustration to those who value it. Likewise, others will be frustrated by the delays often associated with participative decision making. Others may view shared decision making as a threat to the traditional right of a manager to have the final say. Participation will act as a stressor for those people.

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Intra- and Intergroup Relationships Poor relationships within and between groups can be a source of stress. For example, several members of the customer service team may not get along, or a firm’s salespeople may make commitments that the installation team can’t honor, which can lead to friction between these two groups. Poor relationships may include low trust, lack of cohesion, low supportiveness, and lack of interest in listening to and dealing with the problems that confront a group or group member. Problem relationships can lead to communication breakdowns and low job satisfaction, further increasing the likelihood of stress.

Organizational Politics High levels of political behavior in organizations can be a source of stress for many employees. Office politics are consistently cited as a primary stressor in organizations. Political activity, game playing, and power struggles can create friction, heighten dysfunctional competition between individuals and groups, and increase stress. Friction, stress, and hard-driving style are exemplified by the action of Al Dunlap, a designated turnaround chief executive officer. Dunlap was given credit for turning around troubled American Can, Crown Zellenbach, and Scott Paper. On the other hand, he was a failure at Sunbeam and was eventually fired.15 He had a reputation for being political, gruff, and demeaning. One of his first meetings at Sunbeam was described as follows: “It was like a dog barking at you for hours. He just yelled, ranted, and raved. He was condescending, belligerent, and disrespectful.”16 Many managers left Sunbeam because it became a highly politicized and stressful place to work. Al Dunlap was himself a stressor for many of the managers who wouldn’t tolerate his behavior and style. In contrast to Dunlap’s and Zellenbach’s aggressive styles, Jun Haraguchi, president and CEO of Konica Minolta’s Business Solutions U.S.A., follows a “work hard, be nice” philosophy. He practices yoga on a daily basis, plays his guitar with performers at company functions, tells jokes at company meetings, and tries to be approachable to his employees. Haraguchi believes a less stressful environment at the workplace is better for everyone, including himself.

Organizational Culture Like individuals, organizations have distinct personalities. The personality of an organization is shaped largely by its top executives. A tyrannical and autocratic executive team is able to create a culture that is filled with fear. Ernest Gallo is credited with being the stress producer at Gallo Winery because of the culture he established with his hard-driving style, unrelenting insistence on superior performance, and low tolerance for failure.17 Charles Wang, co-founder and former CEO of Computer Associates (CA), was accused of instilling a “culture of fear” throughout the company following its creation. Years later, a subsequent CEO, John Swainson, helped to lift the veil of fear by instilling openness, courage to speak honestly, and humor into the CA culture.18

Lack of Performance Feedback Most people want to know how they are doing and how management views their work. All too often, however, meaningful performance evaluation information is lacking, or the information is provided in a highly authoritarian or critical manner. Performance feedback information must be provided, and if it is to be provided in a way that minimizes stress, it must take place in an open two-way communication system.

Inadequate Career Development Opportunities Career development opportunity stressors are those aspects of the organizational environment that influence a person’s perception of the quality of his or her career progress. Career

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variables may serve as stressors when they become sources of concern, anxiety, or frustration. This can happen if an employee is concerned about real or imagined obsolescence, feels that promotion progress is inadequate, or is generally dissatisfied with the match between career aspirations and the current position.

Downsizing Downsizing is primarily associated with the reduction of human resources, layoffs, attrition, redeployment, or early retirement.19 As some organizations strive to become “lean and mean,” increasing numbers of employees are either downsized or fear being downsized.20 In either case, downsizing is a potent stressor. It can have negative effects for both individuals and organizations. Studies have shown, for example, that disability claims can increase as much as 70 percent in companies that have recently downsized.21 This increase comes both from employees who have been dismissed as well as from those who remained. That is probably why many companies like Novell, Wachovia, and ReliaStar Bankers Security Life Insurance Co. have established programs to help employees cope with the stress of reorganizations and layoffs.22

Nonwork Stressors Nonwork stressors are those caused by factors outside the organization. Although the emphasis in the chapter is on work, nonwork stressors should not be ignored. Raising children, caring for elders, volunteering in the community, taking college courses, and balancing family and work life are stressful situations for numerous people.23 The stress produced outside work is likely to affect a person’s work performance and work behavior in general. The distinction between work and nonwork is blurred, overlaps, and is significant in any discussion or analysis of stress. As more consideration of nonwork versus work balance continues, it is likely that nonwork/ work interaction of stressors research is going to increase. For example, the individual who is attempting to balance her family needs, work requirements, and taking care of an elderly mother is likely to be faced with interactive stressors. That is, it is difficult to separate these three categories of stressors.

Stress Outcomes The effects of stress are many and varied. Some effects, of course, are positive, such as self-motivation and stimulation to satisfy individual goals and objectives. Nonetheless, some stress consequences are disruptive, counterproductive, and even potentially dangerous. Additionally, as was discussed earlier (see again Figure 7.2), there are consequences associated with too little stress as well as too much. Not all individuals will experience the same outcomes. Research suggests, for example, that one of many factors influencing stress outcomes is type of employment. In one study, conducted at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan, a sample of 2,010 employees was chosen for 23 occupations to examine the relationship between stress and consequences. The occupations were combined into four specific groups: skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers and professional and nonprofessional white-collar workers. Blue-collar workers reported the highest subjective effects, including job dissatisfaction; white-collar workers, the lowest. The unskilled workers reported the most boredom and apathy with their job conditions. They specifically identified a number of major stressors that created their psychological state: underutilization of skills and abilities, poor fit of the job with respect to desired amounts of responsibility, lack of participation, and ambiguity about the future. Skilled blue-collar workers share some of these stressors and consequences with their unskilled counterparts, but not all; they reported above-average utilization of

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Karoshi: Stress and Death in Japan

Have you ever felt or heard someone else express the feeling, “This job is going to kill me!” Chances are you—or the person you heard—didn’t literally believe that. If you were a Japanese worker, however, you might be very serious. Polls indicate that more than 40 percent of Japanese workers aged 30 to 60 believe they will die from the stress of overwork, what the Japanese call karoshi. The victims of karoshi are known in their companies as moretsu shain (fanatical workers) and yoi kigyo senshi (good corporate soldiers). Death by overwork is not as rare as it sounds. In 2002, Kenichi Uchino, a Toyota quality control manager, died at the age 30 of karoshi. During each of the six months preceding his death, Kenichi worked more than 80 hours of overtime. Another case was when Ichiro Oshima, an overworked employee of Dentsu, Japan’s largest advertising agency, committed suicide. There are many other cases of karoshi, and the incidence is on the rise in many Asian countries like Japan. In spite of recent revisions to the Japanese labor standard law that reduced the length of the average workweek, Japanese workers spend on average about six weeks (or about 250 hours per year) more on the job than most Americans. A Japanese Health Ministry report identified karoshi as the second-leading

cause of death among workers (the first is cancer). Fierce competition among employees, as well as a strong sense of responsibility to their companies, leads many workers to stay at the office well into the night. When they do go home, they are tense and anxious because they feel that they should really be back at work. Some workers deal with the pressure by disappearing. As many as 10,000 men disappear a year, choosing to drop out rather than face the pressure of their jobs. There are signs, however, that things are changing. The government has funded a multimillion-dollar study of karoshi. Some of Japan’s leading firms, such as Sony Corporation, have begun to require employees to take vacations whether they want to or not. Also, more companies are closing on Saturday, part of a national drive toward a five-day workweek. Traditions die hard in Japan, however, and no one believes fear of karoshi will disappear any time soon. Sources: Adapted from Audrey H.H. Tsui, “Asian Wellness in Decline: A Cost of Rising Prosperity,” International Journal of Workplace Health Management 1, no. 2 (2008): 123–135; A. Kanai, “Karoshi (Work to Death)” in Japan,” Journal of Business Ethics: Supplement 84 (2009): 209–216; and “Asia: Jobs for Life; Death by overwork in Japan,” The Economist, December 2007, p. 98.

their skills and abilities but had less responsibility and more ambiguity. White-collar professionals reported the fewest negative consequences. In all groups, however, there were indications that job performance was affected.24 In examining stress outcomes, the distinction in our model between organizational and individual outcomes is somewhat arbitrary. For example, a decline in job performance due to stress is clearly an individual outcome. It is the individual’s performance that is being affected. Just as clearly, however, the organization experiences important consequences from employees’ stress-related performance decrements.

Individual Outcomes The emergence or evolution of stress outcomes takes time to identify or pinpoint. Eventually, evidence is available upon which to reach a number of conclusions. For example, a promoted employee develops an uncharacteristic pattern of Friday and Monday absences. A salesperson begins to lose repeat business; departed customers complain that he has become inattentive and curt in his dealings with them. A formerly conscientious nurse forgets to administer medications, with potentially serious consequences for her patients. An assembly worker experiences a significant increase in the percentage of her production rejected by a quality-control unit. A software designer displays sudden, apparently unprovoked outbursts of anger. Each of these individuals is experiencing the effects, or consequences, of excessive stress. Stress can produce a variety of psychological consequences, including anxiety, frustration, apathy, lowered self-esteem, aggression, and depression.25 With respect to depression, a comprehensive survey of American workers concluded that a third of them experienced job-related depressions. Such consequences are not restricted to American workers, as the accompanying OB at Work feature about Japan demonstrates.26

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There is a stigma associated with depression.27 Part of the stigma is that most people lack an understanding of depression and its frequency. Unfortunately, most managers are not aware of these facts: • According to Mental Health America, the cost of depression is $44 billion a year in medical bills, lost productivity, and absenteeism.28 • The World Health Organization estimates that by 2020 depression will be the secondleading cause of premature death and disability worldwide.29 • Depression is difficult to detect, especially within the present health care system.30 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) is the diagnostic tool used to detect depression. The DSM-IV indicates that the diagnosis of depression requires the presence of either a depressed mood or diminished interest in all or most activities, marked psychomotor retardation, significant appetite or weight change, changes in sleep, fatigue or loss of energy, problems thinking or concentrating, feelings of worthlessness, excessive feelings of guilt, or thoughts of suicide or death. These signs must be persistent over the course of two weeks. Managerial understanding of these symptoms can help organizations, especially when the manager requests an intervention from professional counselors. Managers are not skilled or qualified to intervene themselves, yet mild and moderate cases of depression can be treated over time. Being aware of depression symptoms and situations that precipitate it are the first line of intervention. Unfortunately, the stigma of depression results in a lack of understanding of its pervasiveness, costs, and treatment possibilities.31 Some outcomes of stress may be cognitive. Cognitive outcomes include poor concentration, inability to make sound decisions or any decisions at all, mental blocks, and decreased attention spans. Other effects may be behavioral. Such manifestations as being prone to accidents, impulsive behavior, alcohol and drug abuse, and explosive temper are examples. Finally, physiological outcomes could include increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, sweating, hot and cold flashes, increased blood glucose levels, and elevated stomach acid production. Among the individual outcomes of stress, those classified as physiological are perhaps the most dysfunctional because they can in turn contribute to physical illness. One of the more significant of the physiological consequences and illness relationships is that of coronary heart disease (CHD). Although virtually unknown in the industrialized world a century ago, CHD now accounts for almost two out of every five deaths in the United States. Traditional risk factors such as obesity, smoking, heredity, and high cholesterol can account for approximately 25 percent of the incidence of CHD. There is growing medical opinion that job and life stress may be a major contributor to the remaining 75 percent.32 Several studies have found, for example, a relationship between changes in blood pressure and job stress.33 Some stress outcomes combine effects from several of the categories of consequences described earlier. Consider, for example, the following two scenarios: Benjamin works as a teacher in an inner-city high school. He barely remembers the time when he could not wait for the start of each school day; now, he cannot wait until each day ends. As much as he could use the money, he quit teaching optional summer school three summers ago. He needs that break to recharge his batteries, which seem to run down earlier with each passing school year. Many of his students are moody, turned off to society, and abusive to others. Benjamin is beginning to realize that he himself is becoming moody, turned off to society, and abusive to others. Cecilia works as an air traffic controller in the second-busiest airport in the country. Every day, the lives of literally thousands of people depend on how well she does her job.

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Near misses are an everyday occurrence; avoiding disaster requires quick thinking and a cool head. At 31 years of age, Cecilia is the third-oldest controller in the tower. She knows there are few controllers over the age of 45, and she is certain she will never be one. To make matters worse, she is in the final stages of a divorce. Cecilia was told after her most recent physical that she had developed a stomach ulcer. She is thinking of going into the nursery business with her sister. Having responsibility for the well-being of shrubs and trees, rather than people, is very attractive to her. Burnout A psychological process resulting from work stress that results in emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of decreased accomplishment.

TABLE 7.1 Indicators of Burnout

Benjamin and Cecilia are both experiencing job burnout. Burnout is a psychological process, brought about by unrelieved work stress, which results in emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of decreased accomplishment.34 Table 7.1 displays some of the indicators of these three burnout outcomes. Burnout tends to be a particular problem among people whose jobs require extensive contact with other people, responsibility for them, or both. Indeed, much of the research that has been conducted on burnout has centered on the so-called helping professions: teachers, nurses, counselors, physicians, social workers, therapists, police, and parole officers.35 The next OB at Work feature presents some of the myths that surround the burnout concept. A very important idea implicit in this conceptualization of burnout relates to job involvement. A high degree of involvement in, identification with, or commitment to one’s job or profession is a necessary prerequisite for burnout. It is unlikely that one would become exhausted without putting forth a great deal of effort. Thus, the irony of burnout is that those most susceptible are those most committed to their work; all else being equal, lower job commitment equals lower likelihood of burnout. Various individual variables also affect the likelihood of developing burnout. For example, women are more likely to burn out than men, younger employees are more susceptible than older ones (particularly beyond age 50), and unmarried workers are more likely to burn out than married ones. Organizations contribute to employee job burnout in a variety of ways. Researchers have identified four factors that are particularly important contributors to burnout: high levels of work overload, dead-end jobs, excessive red tape and paperwork, and poor communication and feedback, particularly regarding job performance. In addition, factors that have been identified in at least one research study as contributing to burnout include role conflict and ambiguity, difficult interpersonal relationships, and reward systems that are not contingent upon performance. A recent meta-analysis (a study of several other research studies) found that dimensions of one’s personality are correlated with job burnout; and that burnout is linked to higher levels of absenteeism and turnover, as well as reduced job performance.36 A consistent theme found in analyzing burnout is the problematic relationship between the person and the work environment. This is typically described in terms of lack of fit. For example, the demands of the job may exceed the capacity of the individual to cope effectively, or the individual’s efforts may not be met with equitable rewards. This framework Emotional Exhaustion

Depersonalization

Low Personal Accomplishment

Feel drained by work

Become hardened or cynical about job

Can’t deal with problems effectively

Feel fatigued in the morning

Treat others like objects

Don’t have positive influence on others

Frustrated

Don’t care about what happens to others

Can’t understand or identify with others’ problems

Avoid working with other people

Feel other people blame you

No longer excited by your job

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Preventing Burnout

Burnout among employees should be avoided at all costs. Managers who push employees over the edge into burnout are causing harm to their employees and impeding their ability to do high-quality work. If burned-out employees decide to leave the organization, then managers will need to invest time and financial resources to replace them. Thus, we can conclude that burnout can reduce an organization’s effectiveness. Some organizations have taken steps to prevent employee burnout, including the following examples: 1. Deloitte & Touche has implemented a policy that limits their employees’ travel time. It is no longer company policy for employees to spend all five working days of the week at clients’ offices. At a maximum, employees are to spend only three nights (four working days) away from home and work the fifth day in their own home offices each week, even when on lengthy assignments. 2. Ernst & Young has a committee that monitors its staff accountants’ workloads to head off burnout situations. The company says that its policies are raising retention rates and improving client service. A senior manager at Ernst observed that employees typically won’t admit to burning out; thus, having some compassionate, objective overview is useful.

3. Wachovia Bank managers can award their employees with up to three extra paid days off. One manager of the bank’s call center operations has awarded 35 percent of his 5,500 call center employees with paid days off the job. 4. Washington-based accounting and consulting firm, Clark Nuber, is helping its tax specialists avoid burnout during busy tax seasons by limiting their schedules to 55 hours per week (which is lower than the industry standard). By working fewer hours, the specialists, the company hopes, will do a better job for clients. These programs are representative of the steps some organizations are taking to help their employees be more productive. As more managers become aware of the negative effects of burnout, perhaps these programs will become more common across all types of organizations. Sources: Adapted from Terence F. Shea, “Employees First,” HRMagazine, July 2008, 36–38; Sue Shellenbarger, “Companies Retool Time-Off Policies to Prevent Burnout, Reward Performance,” Wall Street Journal, January 5, 2006, p. D.1; and Sue Shellenbarger, “The Myths That Make Managers Push Staff to the Edge of Burnout,” Wall Street Journal, March 17, 1999, p. B1.

with its focus on explaining behavior in terms of the interaction of the person and environment offers promise in understanding job burnout.37

Organizational Consequences As illustrated in Figure 7.1, a number of the behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes that are linked also have organizational consequences. While the organizational consequences of stress are many and varied, they share one common feature: stress costs organizations money. Although precise figures are lacking, based on a variety of estimates and projections from government, industry, and health groups, we place the costs of stress at approximately $150 billion annually. This estimate, which probably is conservative (some estimates are as high as $300 billion annually),38 attempts to take into account the dollar effects of reductions in operating effectiveness resulting from stress. The effects include poorer decision making and decreases in creativity. The huge figure also reflects the costs associated with mental and physical health problems arising from stress conditions, including hospital and medical costs, lost work time, turnover, sabotage, and a host of other variables that may contribute to organizational costs. When you consider that employers pay approximately 80 percent of all private health insurance premiums and that workers’ compensation laws increasingly include provisions for awarding benefits for injuries stemming from stress in the workplace, it is clear that organizational consequences are significant. The OB at Work feature on the following page indicates that stress costs American organizations about $7,500 per employee annually.

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The Costs of Job Stress

Scott is founder and president of a rapidly growing downtown custom software development firm. His company, which he estimates has grown by more than 50 percent in the past few years, takes up more time than he likes to admit. “I don’t want to think about how many hours I put in a week,” he chuckles. Combine those pressures of building a tech firm in Cleveland with the time commitments of his growing family, and you end up with what most executives continually battle: stress. Stress isn’t always a bad thing. Without what doctors call “acute” stress, you wouldn’t be able to perform to the level your company expects. A little adrenaline in your blood helps you land that contract or finish that project on deadline. But when the stress is chronic—when you just can’t relax—that’s when it’s a problem. It’s an obstacle that will not only affect your business and family relationships, but shorten your life as well. Stress is linked to the six leading causes of death: heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of the liver, and suicide, according to the American Psychological Association (APA). And as many as 90 percent of all physician office visits are for stress-related illnesses and complaints. All this stress isn’t good for the business, either. In terms of lost hours due to absenteeism, reduced productivity, and workers’ compensation benefits, stress costs American industry more than $7,500 per worker per year, according to the APA. Luckily, there are steps you can take to manage the stress. Exercise, yoga, and deep-breathing exercises are helpful, but what will help the most is simply to get away from work. “There has to be a balance,” Scott says. “You always have to have a mix of work, family, and exercise.” Dr. Richard Lang is the executive stress guru of Cleveland. He manages the Executive Health Program at The Cleveland Clinic. The program provides a full-day cornucopia of physical and psychological exams to detect health problems in professionals and executives. Lang says the typical executive he sees is a male around age 50, who is at the senior-management

level in his company and the head of a family. Often, the pressures of those responsibilities start to weigh too heavily on the patient. Making the effects of stress worse is how these executives focus on helping others with their problems but lack the necessary support network to help with their own family and business problems. When work and family pressures build, there are almost always physical symptoms, according to the doctors. The physical signs of chronic stress vary and range in severity. Usually they include symptoms like difficulty focusing or concentrating, disorganization, insomnia and nervousness, and more noticeable physical signs like frequent headaches, chest pain, difficulty breathing, upset stomach, and back pain. Unfortunately, some executives cope with the stress in dangerous ways like drinking, overeating, and smoking, which create even more of a health problem. There are simple alternatives that will not only lower stress but also improve executives’ overall health. Regardless of what is causing the stress, the doctors explain, almost every stress management program includes some form of regular exercise, whether it is running or lifting weights, or lower-impact activities like deep-breathing exercises, yoga, or progressive muscle relaxation. In addition, many organizations offer employee assistance programs (EAPs) that provide counseling; and wellness and health plans that include information and resources to reduce the effects of stress. Doctors say many executives who complain they don’t have time for exercise are usually surprised that once they get on a regimen they often stick with it due to the stress-reduction effects and other health benefits. Sources: Adapted from Kristen Gerencher, “MarketWatch: Relax, You Can Beat That Stress,” Wall Street Journal, January 3, 2010; and Morgan Lewis Jr., “Under Pressure: Stress Defines the Executive’s Life But Don’t Let It Become a Dangerous Problem,” Inside Business, April 2004, pp. 72–74.

Excessive stress increases job dissatisfaction. As we saw in Chapter 4, job dissatisfaction can be associated with a number of dysfunctional outcomes, including increased turnover, absenteeism, and reduced job performance. If productivity is reduced just 3 percent, for example, an organization employing 1,000 people would need to hire an additional 30 employees to compensate for that lost productivity. If annual employee costs are $40,000 per employee including wages and benefits, stress is costing the company $1.2 million just to replace lost productivity. This doesn’t include costs associated with recruitment and training. Nor does this consider that decreases in quality of performance may be more costly for an organization than quantity decreases. Customer dissatisfaction with lower-quality goods or services can have significant effects on an organization’s growth.

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Stress Moderators Stressors evoke diverse responses from different people. Some people are better able to cope with a stressor than others. They can adapt their behavior in such a way as to meet the stressor head-on. On the other hand, some people are predisposed to stress; that is, they are not able to adapt to the stressor. The model presented in Figure 7.1 (on page 197) suggests that various factors can moderate the relationships among stressors, stress, and consequences. A moderator is a condition, behavior, or characteristic that influences the relationship between two variables. The effect may be to intensify or weaken the relationship. The relationship between the number of gallons of gasoline used and the total of miles driven, for example, is moderated by driving speed. At very low or very high speeds, gas mileage declines; at intermediate speeds, mileage increases. Thus, driving speed affects the relationship between gasoline used and miles driven. Many conditions, behaviors, and characteristics may act as stress moderators, including such variables as age, gender, and the hardiness factor discussed earlier in the chapter. In this section, we will briefly examine three representative types of moderators: (1) personality, (2) Type A behavior, and (3) social support.

Personality As discussed in Chapter 4, the term personality refers to a relatively stable set of characteristics, temperaments, and tendencies that shape the similarities and differences in people’s behavior. The number of aspects of personality that could serve as stress moderators is quite large. We will confine our attention to those aspects of personality previously identified in Chapter 4: the Big Five model, locus of control, and self-efficacy. As you recall from Chapter 4, the Big Five model of personality is made up of five dimensions: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Of these, emotional stability is most clearly related to stress. Those high on this dimension are most likely to experience positive moods and feel good about themselves and their jobs. While they certainly experience stress, they are less likely to be overwhelmed by it and are in a better position to recover from it. To a somewhat lesser degree, those high on extroversion are also more predisposed to experience positive emotional states. Because they are sociable and friendly, they are more likely to have a wider network of friends than their introverted counterparts; consequently, they have more resources to draw on in times of distress. If you are low on agreeableness, you have a tendency to be antagonistic, unsympathetic, or even rude toward others. You are also probably somewhat mistrusting of others. These attributes increase the likelihood that individuals will find other people to be a source of stress, and because others are more likely to find interacting with these individuals stressful as well, an interpersonal relationship environment full of stressful situations is created. Conscientiousness is a Big Five dimension most consistently related to job performance and success. To the extent that good performance leads to satisfaction and other rewards, those high on conscientiousness are less likely to experience stress with respect to these aspects of their jobs. Those low on this dimension, however, are more likely to be poorer performers, receive fewer rewards, and generally be less successful in their careers—not a recipe for low stress levels! Finally, those high on openness to experience are better prepared to deal with stressors associated with change because they are more likely to view change as a challenge, rather than a threat. Beliefs people have about where control over their lives resides relates to locus of control. As discussed in Chapter 4, “internals” perceive themselves to be in control of the events that shape their lives to a greater extent than “externals,” who feel that control is

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external to them. The traditional assumption is that if people feel they have control in a situation, they will be less likely to assess the situation as threatening or stressful. While this assumption may be valid in a general sense, the relationship between locus of control and stress is not always that straightforward. A more inclusive depiction suggests that internals are more likely to experience stress when they are unable to exercise the control they believe they should, while externals will be threatened (and, consequently, stressed) in situations where they can exercise some degree of control over what is happening. Viewed from this perspective, the locus of control–stress relationship is a function of personal beliefs and environmental realities. When a person’s beliefs about where control resides are congruent with the actual locus of control in a given situation, there is less likelihood stress will result. When beliefs and reality are not the same, the likelihood of experiencing stress increases. Self-efficacy is another personality attribute that is an important moderator variable. Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy feel confident in their abilities and in their job performance. They are more likely to perceive potential stressors as challenges and opportunities, rather than threats and problems. Those with low levels of self-efficacy, on the other hand, are less confident in their abilities and more likely to assume they will fail. Because they believe they will fail, they will likely exert less effort, thereby ensuring that their assessment of their abilities is correct! Even when a situation is perceived as threatening, those with high self-efficacy are more likely to deal with the threat quickly, effectively, and with fewer negative outcomes. The relationship between self-efficacy and stress is not confined to one part of the stress process. Self-efficacy may moderate the process from the perception of stressors (e.g., workers with low self-efficacy are more likely to experience work overload) to consequences (e.g., low self-efficacy has been associated with increased incidence of coronary heart disease risk). Thus, as a moderator, self-efficacy plays a pervasive role.

Type A Behavior Pattern In the 1950s, two medical cardiologists and researchers, Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman, discovered what they called the Type A behavior pattern (TABP).39 They searched the medical literature and found that traditional coronary risk factors such as dietary cholesterol, blood pressure, and heredity could not totally explain or predict coronary heart disease (CHD), the name given to cardiovascular diseases that are characterized by inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart. Other factors seemed to be playing a major role in CHD. Through interviews with and observation of patients, they began to uncover a pattern of behavior or traits. They eventually called this the Type A behavior pattern. The person with TABP demonstrates certain characteristics: he or she • • • • • •

Chronically struggles to get as many things done as possible in the shortest time. Is aggressive, ambitious, competitive, and forceful. Speaks explosively and rushes others to finish what they are saying. Is impatient, hates to wait, and considers waiting a waste of precious time. Is preoccupied with deadlines and is work oriented. Is always in a struggle with people, things, and events.

The converse, the Type B individual, mainly is free of the TABP characteristics and generally feels no pressing conflict with either time or persons. The Type B may have considerable drive, want to accomplish things, and work hard, but the Type B has a confident style that allows him or her to work at a steady pace and not to race against the clock. The Type A has been likened to a racehorse; the Type B, to a turtle. More recent research into TABP suggests that not all aspects of the behavior pattern are equally associated with negative consequences. Specifically, hostility has been identified

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as being a TABP subcomponent (not identified by Friedman and Rosenman) most predictive of the development of coronary heart disease among Type As.40 Nor is CHD the only negative outcome: TABP has been associated with a number of health-related consequences including ulcers, insomnia, and depression. As researchers learn more about the individual components that comprise Type A behavior, further refinements in our understanding of this moderator can be expected.

Social Support

social support The comfort, assistance, or information received through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups.

Both the quantity and quality of social relationships individuals have with others appear to have a potentially important effect on the amount of stress they experience and on the likelihood that stress will have adverse effects on their mental and physical health. Social support can be defined as the comfort, assistance, or information one receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups. A number of studies have linked social support with aspects of health, illness, and stress.41 Social support may take the form of emotional support (expressing concern, indicating trust, boosting esteem, listening), appraisal support (providing feedback and affirmation), or informational support (giving advice, making suggestions, providing direction). People who can serve as sources of social support at work include supervisors, co-workers, subordinates, and customers or other non-organizational members with whom an employee might have contact. Nonwork support sources include family members (immediate and extended), friends, neighbors, caregivers (e.g., ministers), health professionals (physicians, psychologists, counselors), and self-help groups (Alcoholics Anonymous, Weight Watchers). A co-worker listening to a friend who failed to receive a desired promotion, a group of recently laid-off workers helping each other find new employment, or an experienced employee helping a trainee learn a job are all examples of providing support. Social support is effective as a stress moderator because it buffers the negative effect of stressors by providing a degree of predictability, purpose, and hope in upsetting and threatening situations. Almost everyone has experienced feeling “better” (calmer, less anxious, or concerned) after having talked about a problem with a spouse, friend, or co-worker. Similarly, almost everyone has provided support to someone else, and this support has had positive effects for that person. Thus, virtually all of us know from first-hand experience the moderating role social support can play. A number of studies reinforce what we know to be true for our experiences. Social support has been shown to reduce stress among employed individuals ranging from unskilled workers to highly trained professionals; it is consistently cited as an effective stress coping technique, and it has been associated with fewer health complaints experienced during periods of high stress.42

Stress Prevention and Management An astute manager never ignores a turnover or absenteeism problem, workplace drug abuse, a decline in performance, hostile and belligerent employees, reduced quality of production, or any other sign that the organization’s performance goals are not being met. The effective manager, in fact, views these occurrences as symptoms and looks beyond them to identify and correct the underlying causes. Yet most managers likely will search for traditional causes such as poor training, defective equipment, or inadequate instructions regarding what needs to be done. In all likelihood, stress will not be on the list of possible problems. Thus, the very first step in any attempt to deal with stress so that it remains within tolerable limits is recognition that it exists. Once that is accomplished, a variety of approaches and programs for preventing and managing organizational stress are available.

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FIGURE 7.3

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Organizational Stress Management and Prevention Programs

Organizational Stress Management Program Targets Source: John M. Ivancevich, Michael T. Matteson, Sara M. Freedman, and James S. Phillips, “Worksite Stress Management Intervention,” American Psychologist, 1990, p. 253.

Managing Workplace Stress

Targeted at 3

1 2 Work and Nonwork Stressors • Workload • Job conditions • Role conflict and ambiguity • Career development • Politics • Interpersonal relations • Aggressive behavior • Conflict between work and nonwork (child care, elder care)

Employee perceptions/ experience of stress

Outcomes of Stress • Physiological • Emotional • Behavioral

Figure 7.3 presents how organizational stress management programs can be targeted. Programs are targeted to (1) identify and modify work stressors, (2) engage employees in understanding and modifying stress and its effect, and (3) provide employees with support to cope with the negative effect of stress. In a rapidly changing work environment, this type of targeting is difficult to accomplish. However, a trained, educated, and knowledgeable workforce can make modifications with the help of management in how work is performed. Some of the targeted, corrective programs include the following: • Training programs for managing and coping with stress. • Redesigning work to minimize stressors. • Changes in management style to one of more support and coaching to help workers achieve their goals. • Creating more flexible work hours and paying more attention to work/life balance with regard to child and elder care. • Better communication and team-building practices. • Better feedback on worker performance and management expectations. These and other efforts are targeted to prevent and manage stress. The potential for success of any prevention or management of stress program is good if there is a true commitment to understanding how stressors, stress, and outcomes are interrelated. The distinction between preventing stress and managing it is very important. Stress prevention focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors that might provoke the stress response. Stress management suggests procedures for helping people cope effectively with or reduce stress that is already being experienced. In this concluding section of the chapter, we examine organizational programs for and individual approaches to stress prevention and management, with the emphasis on management. First, however, we will look at a way of thinking about organizational stress prevention.

Maximizing Person–Environment Fit In defining stress earlier in the chapter, we emphasized that stress is the consequence of the interaction between an environmental stimulus (a stressor) and the individual’s response.

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person–environment (P–E) fit The extent to which work provides rewards that meet the person’s needs and to which the employee’s skills match the requirements of thejob.

socialization The process by which organizations bring newemployees into theculture.

From this perspective, stress may be viewed as a consequence of the relationship between the individual and the work environment. While there are many ways of thinking about individual–organizational relationships and stress, the concept of person–environment fit is the most widely used.43 A person–environment (P–E) fit approach generally focuses on two dimensions of fit.44 One is the extent to which work provides formal and informal rewards to meet or match (fit) the person’s needs. Misfit on this dimension results in stress. For example, a job may provide too little job security, insufficient compensation and reward for the effort expended, or inadequate recognition to meet the individual’s needs or preferences. The second type of fit deals with the extent to which the employee’s skills, abilities, and experience match the demands and requirements of the employer. To the extent that the individual’s talents are insufficient for or underutilized by job requirements, stress results. By improving the quality of or maximizing the fit between the employee and the organizational environment, potential stressors are eliminated and stress is prevented. This P–E fit approach is somewhat similar to—and consistent with—the concept of the psychological contract that was developed in Chapter 4. Violations of the psychological contract represent breakdowns in P–E fit. There are numerous strategies for maximizing P–E fit. Ideally, the process begins before an individual even joins the organization. Employee recruitment programs that provide realistic job previews help potential employees to determine whether the reality of the job matches their needs and expectations. Selection programs that are effective in ensuring that potential employees possess the requisite skills, knowledge, experience, and abilities for the job are key elements in maximizing fit. Job skills and knowledge are not the only important factors to consider in employee selection, however. Fit can be maximized by closely linking personal predispositions to relevant aspects of the work environment as well. For example, as suggested earlier, individuals with a low tolerance for ambiguity and who find themselves in jobs or organizational environments in which there is little structure will very likely experience stress. There are many other examples: an individual who is by nature authoritarian will experience stress in a participative organization; those wishing autonomy will be distressed by tight controls and managers who micromanage; and individuals with a high need for performance feedback will be stressed by supervisors who never communicate performance information. Once in the organization, a critical variable in maximizing fit and preventing stress is effective socialization. Socialization is the process by which the individual learns and internalizes the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge that are important for becoming an effective organizational member. The stages and characteristics of effective socialization were discussed in detail in Chapter 2, and you may wish to refer to that discussion in the present context of maximizing P–E fit.

Organizational Stress Prevention and Management Programs In addition to the variety of activities that may be undertaken to improve person–environment fit, an increasing number of organizations have developed very specific programs for stress prevention and stress management. Some of these programs focus on a specific issue or problem, such as alcohol or drug abuse, career counseling, job relocation, or burnout. The United States Postal Service, for example, has developed a workplace violence prevention program. Each district has a Threat Assessment Team (TAT) that assesses threatening situations and develops risk reduction plans to minimize the potential risk of future violence at post offices throughout the country. The TATs promote violence awareness and prevention to ensure a safe working environment for all employees and a secure business climate for

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Postal Service customers.45 This program, the most comprehensive one in existence, represents an attempt to reduce the employee-initiated violence that characterized the service in the past.46 Still other programs may target a specific group within the organization. An example is pharmaceutical manufacturer GlaxoSmithKline PLC that created a “team resilience program” to help team members discuss and cope with job-related stress like changing deadlines, isolation, and work overload.47 Approximately 18,000 employees have participated in the program, and the firm reports several positive outcomes from the program between 2003 and 2006: a 60 percent reduction in job-related mental health illness and a 29 percent decrease in mental-health-related absences. The reduction in absences saved the company more than $1.4 million over those four years.48 Another example is the Resident Assistance Program in place at Baylor College of Medicine. This program was designed to help medical residents cope successfully with the multitude of stressors they encounter.49 Some programs may focus on a particular technique, such as developing relaxation skills. Others are more general in nature, using a variety of approaches and geared to a cross-section of employees, such as the Employee Assistance Program at B. F. Goodrich, the Coors Brewing Company Wellness Program, and the Emotional Health Program at Equitable Life. Two specific types of organizational programs have become particularly popular during the past two decades: employee assistance programs and wellness programs.

Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) employee assistance programs (EAPs) Programs designed to assist with a wide range of work- and nonworkrelated stress-induced problems.

Originally conceived as alcohol abuse programs, most current employee assistance programs (EAPs) are designed to deal with a wide range of stress-related problems, both work and nonwork related, including behavioral and emotional difficulties, substance abuse, excessive debt, family and marital discord, and other personal problems. IBM, Blue Cross and Blue Shield of North Carolina, Alcoa in Evansville, Indiana, and Telemundo Network in Miami, Florida, are examples of companies with such programs.50 As a result of the recent recession, demand for EAP services has increased. For example, EAP Corporate Counseling Associates of New York City has reported a 21 percent increase in calls to its counselors.51 EAPs tend to be based on the traditional medical approach to treatment. General program elements include the following: • Diagnosis: An employee with a problem asks for help; EAP staff attempts to diagnose the problem. • Treatment: Counseling or supportive therapy is provided. If in-house EAP staff is unable to help, the employee may be referred to appropriate community-based professionals. • Screening: Periodic examination of employees in highly stressful jobs is provided to detect early indications of problems. • Prevention: Education and persuasion are used to convince employees at high risk that something must be done to assist them in effectively coping with stress. An increasing number of employers believe that good health among employees is good for the organization. Blue Cross Blue Shield determined that every dollar spent on the psychological care of employees with breast cancer saved $2.50 to $5.10 in overall medical expenses. The public school system of Orange County, Florida, found that the cost of medical claims dropped by 66 percent over five years for employees who used the EAP. At the end of five years, the same employees were taking 36 percent fewer sick leaves. At McDonnell-Douglas (now called Boeing), workers treated for alcohol and drug problems missed 44 percent fewer days of work after the EAP was set up.52

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EAPs may be internal, company-run programs or external efforts in which the organization contracts with a private firm to provide services to company employees. The previously cited Emotional Health Program at Equitable Life is typical of such programs. It is concerned with prevention, treatment, and referral of employees. Staffed with a clinical psychologist, physician, psychology intern, and counselor, it focuses on individual intervention. Offered are biofeedback, relaxation training, and counseling. When appropriate, referrals are made to external health practitioners and hospitals. Within the past five years, EAP programs have emerged that help employees understand and manage their personal finances. At IBM, over 60,000 employees have participated in the MoneySmart program that provides individualized planning sessions, seminars, and online tools that educate employees on managing debt and housing expenditures, budgeting for college, and planning for retirement.53 Crucial to the success of any EAP is trust. Employees must trust that (1) the program can and will provide real help, (2) confidentiality will be maintained, and (3) use of the program carries no negative implications for job security or future advancement. If employees do not trust the program or company management, they will not participate. EAPs with no customers cannot have a positive effect on stress prevention and management.

Wellness Programs wellness programs Activities that focus on an employee’s overall physical and mental health.

Wellness programs, sometimes called health promotion programs, focus on the employee’s overall physical and mental health. Simply stated, any activity an organization engages in that is designed to identify and assist in preventing or correcting specific health problems, health hazards, or negative health habits can be thought of as wellness related. This includes not only disease identification but lifestyle modification as well. Among the most prevalent examples of such programs are those emphasizing hypertension identification and control, smoking cessation, physical fitness and exercise, nutrition and diet control, and job and personal stress management. As the following OB at Work feature suggests, many managers believe that organizations have a responsibility to provide wellness programs to their most important asset, employees. It might appear strange that we would include wellness programs in a discussion of stress management. There are several reasons we do. First, stress prevention and management is a vital part of wellness, and, as we have already noted, it is frequently a component of wellness programs. Second, many of the concerns of wellness programs are at least partially stress related. Stress has been cited as the greatest cause of poor health habits,54 and poor health habits are what wellness programs attempt to change. Third, a major reason organizations are interested in stress management is that it contributes to healthier, more productive, and more effective organizations. Corporate wellness programs simply extend these payoffs. Fourth, it is impossible to divorce the topic of stress from health. In a sense, wellness programs represent a broad-based, contemporary extension of stress programs; their focus is concern for employee health and quality-of-life issues. Well Workplace University is a learning center where organizational leaders, health care professionals, and wellness professionals meet to discuss, analyze, and work to build world-class wellness programs. The central benchmarks used to build wellness programs are to (1) build senior-level support, (2) create wellness teams, (3) collect data to drive programs, (4) craft an operating plan, (5) choose best interventions, (6) create supportive culture, and (7) evaluate outcomes. Two recent success stories include Union Pacific Railroad, which achieved a net savings of $1.26 million through a medical self-care program, and Lincoln Plating, a small employer of 210 people that invested $85,000 in a wellness program and reduced annual turnover from 70 to 35 percent in less than two years.55 Well Workplace University has worked with hundreds of firms, including Mutual of Omaha, Florida Power and Light, and Vistakon (a Johnson & Johnson company).56

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O B AT W O R K

Managing Workplace Stress

The Costs of Job Stress, Part 2

Do organizations have a responsibility to encourage wellness among employees? Seventy-one percent of executives say yes, according to the American Management Association’s (AMA) 2003 Survey on Health and Wellness Programs. However, less than half of the companies that responded offer educational programs on self-care topics, including exercise and fitness (47 percent), weight management (34 percent), or nutrition (25 percent). The AMA surveyed its members and customers at 354 U.S. companies about the wellness programs they offer their employees. According to the findings, 41 percent of the organizations offer programs on smoking cessation, 36 percent offer blood pressure management programs, 33 percent offer stress management programs, and 27 percent offer cholesterol management programs.

Q. In your opinion, ..do corporations have a responsibility to promote wellness among employees? Yes ................ 71% No ................ 22 Don’t know .......... 7

EDUCATION: Q. Does your organization sponsor programs on any of the following self-care topics? Exercise and fitness .....................47% Smoking cessation ......................41

Q. If your company offers any of these health and wellness programs, do you attend? Yes ................ 63% No ................. 36 Don’t know .......... 2

Q. If your company sponsors these programs, do they offer incentives for employees to attend? Yes ................ 29% No ................. 71

EXERCISE AND FITNESS: More than half (52 percent) of the companies surveyed offer discounts or corporate memberships to health clubs for their employees, and 25 percent have exercise facilities available on the company’s premises. Another 62 percent of respondents said their organizations participate in community- or corporate-sponsored athletic activities, such as softball leagues, bowling teams, or fund-raiser walks/runs.

Q. Are exercise facilities available to employees on the company’s premises? Yes ................ 25% No ................. 75

Q. Are discounts or corporate memberships to health clubs extended to employees?

Blood pressure management .............36

Yes ................ 52%

Weight management .....................34

No ................. 47

Stress management .....................33

Don’t know .......... 1

Cholesterol management .................27

Q. In the past year, has the number of company-sponsored health and wellness programs increased, remained the same, or decreased?

Q. Does your organization participate in communityor corporate-sponsored athletic activities (e.g., softball leagues, bowling teams, fund-raiser walks or runs)?

Increased .................... 31%

Yes ................ 62%

Remained the same ........... 47

No ................. 37

Decreased .................... 6

Don’t know .......... 1

Don’t know .................. 16

NUTRITION: PARTICIPATION: More than a third of respondents (36 percent) say they do not attend these programs when the company sponsors them. Only 29 percent of those companies that offer these programs extend some incentive for employees to participate.

Nearly 30 percent of respondents say their companies have cafeterias that provide or sell meals for employees, and 90 percent say that the selections offered are healthy, including fruits, vegetables, and low-fat entrees. In addition, 92 percent of the companies have vending machines that sell (continued )

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fast food and beverages, including candy, snacks, and soft drinks.

Q. Does your organization hire a cafeteria that provides or sells meals for employees?

Q. Does your organization offer corporate-sponsored, annual comprehensive physicals? Yes, for executives only ........... 22% Yes, for all staff members .......... 16

Yes ................ 29%

No .............................. 59

No ................. 71

Don’t know ....................... 2

Q. Does the organization provide annual flu shots?

PREVENTION: Thirty-eight percent of companies offer corporate-sponsored, comprehensive annual physicals: 22 percent say they are extended to executives only, and 16 percent say they are for all staff members. Seventy-one percent of respondents say their companies provide flu shots.

Yes ................ 71% No ................. 29 Source:Annual Survey of the American Management Association (New York: AMA, 2003).

Another example of success with wellness programs is Hoffman-La Roche Pharmaceuticals of Nutley, New Jersey, which found that it spent only 3 percent of medical benefits dollars on preventive health measures, although 39 percent of the health claims submitted were the result of preventable conditions. Roche management concluded that focusing on prevention would mean healthier, more productive, less stressed, more creative, and less absent employees. Roche named its wellness program “Choosing Health.”57 Choosing Health starts at the individual level by assessing employee health risks via a 76-item survey. The form takes 15 minutes to complete. A health profile then is sent directly to the employee’s home. All employees’ responses and profiles are confidential and not released to a third party. The company also provides onsite screening for such ailments as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and breast and skin cancers. Roche’s human resource management (HRM) group receives only aggregated data showing risks with the general population. HRM then patterns preventive health programs after the health risks and education needs of employees as a group. Almost 100 percent of Roche employees participate in Choosing Health. A part of Choosing Health is an evaluation process to measure the impact of the program. In two years, the average lifestyle score has increased from 63 to 68 (100 is the optimal score). Roche is constantly working to align prevention, intervention, employee health, and productivity. DuPont Corporation has for several years been dedicated to health promotion.58 Cost effectiveness studies at DuPont indicate that fitness programs work. DuPont estimates that for every dollar invested in the health promotion program at least two are received in return. One analysis at DuPont indicates the annual costs per person at risk cost a company as follows: Smokers

$960

Overweight

401

Excess alcohol use

389

High cholesterol

370

High blood pressure

343

DuPont has determined that reducing absenteeism annually by about 6.8 percent would pay for the firm’s entire health promotion effort.

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Sustaining a Wellness Strategy Whether you own a company or serve as a manager, it is advisable to work on creating a healthier workplace. Investing in human assets through a concerned effort and strategy is a long-term investment.59 There is no perfect or “one best” approach to managing stress and burnout. However, there is a general step-by-step approach that appears to be worth consideration. Briefly, it is recommended that: 1. The health and well-being of employees should be a part of the organization’s mission and strategic plans. 2. A written policy statement about health, the promotion of health, and the importance of well-being should be produced. 3. A wellness plan should be developed that has executive commitment, union commitment, and employee commitment. Improving the wellness of employees should be a goal. 4. The “improving wellness” goal should be used as a vehicle for executives, union representatives, and employees to create specific and actionable plans. 5. Organizational resources (e.g., funds, space, time) should be committed to accomplish the wellness plan. 6. A best-practice case file should be created to circulate around the organization. Report successes and celebrate them publicly. 7. Managers should be encouraged and rewarded for their involvement in wellness programs, successes, and working to bring about better work/life balance.60 These are general steps that will call attention to and encourage wellness. The effort should start at the managerial level. When managers display through their behaviors a commitment to employee wellness, there is a message being communicated to nonmanagers that the organization cares.

Individual Approaches to Stress Prevention and Management Organization members do not have to—nor should they—rely on formal organizational programs to assist in stress prevention and management. There are many individual approaches to dealing with stressors and stress.61 To see this, all you have to do is visit any bookstore onsite or online (e.g., www.amazon.com, www.barnesandnoble.com) and look at the self-improvement section. It will be stocked with numerous how-to books on reducing stress. A popular topic aimed at helping employees reduce stress while increasing their productivity is time management, which is discussed in the next OB and Your Career. We briefly examine a few more of the popularly cited and frequently used approaches for individual stress prevention and management next. It is not unusual for any of these approaches to be included in the range of options available within an organizational stress management or wellness program. It should also be noted that there is a great deal of variation in the effectiveness of these techniques. What one person finds useful, another may not. There is still a great deal we do not know regarding the effects of individual differences on stress management outcomes.62

Cognitive Techniques The basic rationale for some individual approaches to stress management, known collectively as cognitive techniques, is that a person’s response to stressors is mediated by cognitive processes or thoughts. The underlying assumption of these techniques is that people’s thoughts, in the form of expectations, beliefs, and assumptions, are labels they apply to situations, and these labels elicit emotional responses to the situation. For example, if an individual labels

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OB AND YOUR CAREER

Reduce Stress: Be More Efficient with Your Time

Most everyone struggles with the stress associated with staying organized, working smarter and faster, and meeting multiple deadlines. Needless to say, employees who are perceived as organized and efficient will reap more career-related benefits than those who fail to master how to use their time wisely. To help sharpen one’s time management skills, experts have offered several suggestions:

4. Make daily and weekly “to do” lists and update the lists frequently. One expert recommends starring those activities that must be done this week and then highlighting those from the list that must be done today. As the activities are completed, a line can be drawn through them. This act provides individuals with a sense of accomplishment and progress.

1. Identify what’s most important in your work. Every job has “must dos” and “nice to dos.” Sometimes individuals do nonimportant tasks first because they tend to be easier and require less thought. This approach can waste time. Employees need to identify and complete the critical duties (on time) even if it means being late with the noncritical tasks.

5. Delegate nonimportant activities. All noncritical activities should be delegated to others whenever possible.

2. Plan your schedule the evening before. Arriving to the office with a clear idea of what needs to get done can help employees “hit the ground running” each day. This head start helps employees be more organized and less stressed.

7. Know at what times of the day you work most efficiently. Some individuals do their “heavy mental lifting” in the mornings, whereas others do their best thinking at other times during the day. Try to divide and work on job activities during those parts of the day that fit the task. For example, one of the authors of this book prefers to write in the mornings and evenings, while teaching, making phone calls, grading, and answering e-mail and voice-mails in the afternoons.

3. Manage the time spent on responding to text messages, e-mails and voice-mails. Try not to stop working on an important project every time a text, e-mail, or voice-mail is received. These interruptions are disruptive and can break one’s train of thought. One expert suggests creating an autoreply message that states that e-mails will be replied to at three times (i.e., 9:00 a.m., 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m.) each day. The same kind of message can be included in a recorded voice-mail message.

6. Set aside an hour or so each day for paperwork and other administrative chores. By setting aside an hour or so each day for “paperwork,” employees will become more efficient or will decide that some of it is less critical and can be delegated.

Sources: Adapted from John Boe, “Time Is Money,” The American Salesman 55, no. 1 (January 2010): 7–10; Jena McGregor, “Making Every Hour Count,” Businessweek, August 25, 2008, p. 67; and “Running a Business: Balancing Work & Life, Five Tips to Boost Productivity,” WSJ.com, November 29, 2007 (accessed on May 17, 2010).

the loss of a promotion a catastrophe, the stress response is to the label, not to the situation. Cognitive techniques of stress management focus on changing labels or cognitions so that people appraise situations differently. This reappraisal typically centers on removing cognitive distortions such as magnifying (not getting the promotion is the end of the world for me), overgeneralizing (not getting promoted means my career is over; I’ll never be promoted in any job, anywhere), and personalization (because I didn’t get the promotion, it’s clear I’m a terrible person). All cognitive techniques have a similar objective: to help people gain more control over their reactions to stressors by modifying their thought processes. Evaluative research on cognitive techniques to stress management is not extensive, although the studies reported are generally positive. Representative occupational groups in which research has indicated positive outcomes with the use of cognitive approaches include nurses, teachers, athletes, and air traffic controllers.63 The positive research results, coupled with the wide range and scope of situations and stressors amenable to such an approach, make cognitive techniques particularly attractive as an individual stress management strategy.

Relaxation Training The purpose of this approach is to reduce a person’s arousal level and bring about a calmer state, both psychologically and physiologically. Psychologically, successful

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relaxation results in enhanced feelings of well-being, peacefulness and calm, a clear sense of being in control, and a reduction in tension and anxiety. Physiologically, decreases in blood pressure, respiration, and heart rate should take place. Relaxation techniques include breathing exercises; muscle relaxation; autogenic training, which combines elements of muscle relaxation and meditation; and a wide variety of mental relaxation strategies, including imagery and visualization. Conditions conducive to achieving relaxed states include a quiet environment, a comfortable physical position, and closed eyes. Simply taking a few moments of “mental rest” from job activities can be effective relaxation activity. Short, more frequent breaks of this sort are more relaxing than fewer, longer breaks.64

Meditation Many of the meditative forms that have achieved some degree of popularity in this country are derivatives of Eastern philosophies. Included in this category are Zen meditation and Nam Sumran, or Sikh meditation. Perhaps the most widely practiced in the United States is transcendental meditation, or TM. Its originator, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, defines TM as turning the attention toward the subtler levels of thought until the mind transcends the experience of the subtlest state of thought and arrives at the source of thought.65 The basic procedure used in TM is simple, but the effects claimed for it are extensive. One simply sits comfortably with closed eyes and engages in the repetition of a special sound (a mantra) for about 20 minutes twice a day. Studies indicate that TM practices are associated with reduced heart rate, lowered oxygen consumption, and decreased blood pressure.66 John Kabat-Zinn, of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, suggests in a research study that happiness may be a byproduct of meditation. He reported that after eight weeks of training in mindfulness-based stress reduction, individuals activated more of the left side of the brain, which aided them in being easy-going, relaxed, and happy.67 In other words, meditation increased the leftside activities and reduced the right-side activity.

Biofeedback Individuals can be taught to control a variety of internal body processes by using a technique called biofeedback. In biofeedback, small changes occurring in the body or brain are detected, amplified, and displayed to the person. Sophisticated recording and computer technology make it possible for a person to attend to subtle changes in heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and brain-wave patterns that normally would be unobservable. Most of these processes are affected by stress. The potential role of biofeedback as an individual stress management technique can be seen by looking at the bodily functions that can, to some degree, be brought under voluntary control. These include brain waves, heart rate, muscle tension, body temperature, stomach acidity, and blood pressure. Most if not all of these processes are affected by stress. The potential of biofeedback is its ability to help induce a state of relaxation and restore bodily functions to a nonstressed state. One advantage of biofeedback over nonfeedback techniques is that it gives precise data about bodily functions. By interpreting the feedback, individuals know how high their blood pressure is, for example, and discover, through practice, means of lowering it. When they are successful, the feedback provides instantaneous information to that effect. Biofeedback training has been useful in reducing anxiety, lowering stomach acidity (and thus reducing the likelihood of ulcer formation), controlling tension and migraine headaches, and, in general, reducing negative physiological manifestations of stress. Despite these positive results, people looking to biofeedback for stress control should understand that success requires training and the use of equipment that may be very expensive.

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Summary of Key Points

Discussion and Review Questions

• Stress may be viewed as either a stimulus or a response. We view it as an adaptive response moderated by individual differences, that is, a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person. • Major variables in the model of organizational stress presented in this chapter are (1) work stressors (individual, group, and organizational), (2) stress itself, (3) stress consequences (organizational and individual), (4) stress moderators (personality, Type A behavior, and social support), and (5) stress prevention and management (maximizing person–environment fit, organizational programs, and individual approaches). • Stressors are actions, situations, or events that place special demands on a person. Three important categories of stressors are (1) work environment (e.g., noise, temperature), (2) individual stressors (e.g., role conflict, work overload, change), and (3) group and organizational stressors (e.g., politics, culture, interpersonal relationships, downsizing). • While some consequences of stress are positive, many are dysfunctional. Negative individual consequences include accident proneness, poor concentration, drug and alcohol abuse, and burnout. Organizational consequences may include absenteeism, turnover, increased health and medical costs, and quantitative and qualitative decrements in productivity. • Some factors affect the nature of the stress response. These are called stress moderators. Three important moderators are personality (e.g., locus of control and self-esteem), Type A behavior, and social support. • Stress prevention and management strategies include (1) maximizing person–environment fit; (2) organizational programs such as employee assistance and wellness; and (3) individual approaches such as cognitive techniques, relaxation training, meditation, and biofeedback. • Although there is no “one best” strategy for managing stress and preventing burnout, there are specific proactive steps organizations can take. Establishing health and wellbeing as important strategic goals is the first recommended proactive step.

1. Research suggests that stress affects people differently. What are three reasons why this is true? 2. Why should managers not counsel or provide advice to any employee suspected of being depressed? 3. Why have some organizations accepted the responsibility for promoting employee wellness and other firms largely ignored the notion of a job contributing to an individual’s stress? 4. What types of jobs or organizations are a better fit for Type A individuals? For Type B individuals? Explain. 5. Why do service or help professions (e.g., social work, addiction counseling) result in high amounts of burnout? 6. What type of social support can a manager initiate in a work setting to help moderate the stress among employees? 7. What kinds of things can a manager do to better maximize employee–environment fit? 8. What is the relationship between stress and personality? What aspects of personality might tend to increase stress? Decrease it? 9. What are some of the costs of unmanaged, chronic stress? 10. Why is benchmarking the wellness programs of other organizations a recommended practice?

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The Annual Physical Exam Pricey annual physicals for employees are available at many clinics. Some organizations are trying to decide whether paying for the physicals is really worth the expense. Using the Internet, investigate the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The types of physicals that organizations provide. The cost of various physical exam options. A comparison of cost across different clinics or providers. An evaluation of which is the best of four clinics to use for an annual physical.

Visit and learn more about wellness programs: • • • •

Cooper Clinic (Dallas): www.cooperaerobics.com Mayo Health Program (Rochester, MN): www.mayo.edu Wellness Junction (Allenwood, NJ): www.wellnessjunction.com Mission Hospitals (Asheville, NC): www.missionhospitals.org

Case for Analysis: Stressed Out at Work? Help Is on the Way Nowadays, it seems more and more employees are increasingly stressed at work. As discussed earlier in the chapter, high levels of intense stress can have serious consequences for individuals and their organizations. There are many possible explanations for this increase in employee stress, including a stubborn recession, intense global competition, persistently high unemployment and demanding performance work cultures. Compounding the problem is that many employees are struggling with personal and financial issues at home. When a spouse or partner loses a job or is forced to accept fewer hours or less pay by his employer, the reduction in family income is stressful. Many employees still have to pay their mortgages, subsidize living and healthcare expenses for elderly parents, pay for their children’s education, have their automobiles repaired, and so forth. Even though these personal issues occur outside of work, they still affect the employee as these stressors can spill over into the employee’s work domain. Another source of stress for employees is related to layoffs. During the most recent recession, several companies and organizations have let go of tens of thousands of employees. Although layoffs are exceptionally hard on the “victims” who are let go, there is also evidence that the “survivors” of layoffs (i.e., those employees who stay with the organization and do not get laid off) experience high levels of stress regarding all of the changes and fear over the future of their own jobs. Some layoff survivors feel guilt over seeing the firing of their coworkers and friends. Also, these surviving employees

often have to absorb the work of their co-workers who are no longer with the organization. And, many survivors wonder if (and when) they’ll be “next.” Research suggests that some of these survivors may ultimately experience lower levels of commitment to and trust in their organizations, a drop in motivation and satisfaction levels, and possibly reduced work performance. Also, some survivors of layoffs may quietly initiate job searches with other organizations. Research suggests that after a layoff occurs, the percent of employees who voluntarily leave the organization can increase by 31 percent. Also, employees who engage in job searches (while in their current jobs) will be more distracted and less focused on their actual jobs. This lack of focus has serious implications for the overall effectiveness of their organizations. High-performance work cultures can also take a toll on employees’ stress levels and mental health. Within a period of about six months, three engineers who worked for the Renault plant outside of Paris, France, committed suicide. It was alleged that prior to their deaths, each of them complained about the “unreasonable workloads, high-pressure management tactics, exhaustion, and humiliating criticism in front of colleagues during performance reviews.” Performance reviews have been the source of stress for employees at other companies, as well. General Electric has stopped calling its lower performers “bottom 10s” (as in bottom 10 percent in performance rankings) and instead has begun referring to them as “less effectives.” At Goldman Sachs Group,

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managers were fond of setting unobtainable “stretch goals” in the past. Recently, these managers were counseled to set both achievable and stretch goals with employees. This way, employees can feel a sense of accomplishment while simultaneously being pushed to do more than they thought possible. What are organizations doing to combat stress among their employees? Many encourage their people to use employee assistance programs (EAPs) or wellness programs. Within the past year or so, there has been an increase in employee requests for financial planning, debt counseling, and legal assistance. Also, many employees are taking advantage of phone and inperson counseling services; a common request is for family and relationship counseling. In addition, experts recommend that organizations modify their cultures so as to decrease the prevalence and harmful effects of stress. For example, managers should encourage employees to share their concerns with teammates or trusted co-workers, ask for help and not keep problems inside, minimize blame when good ideas don’t pan out, and create a listening environment where minor issues are identified before they morph into major issues. To help decrease employees’ stress levels, some firms are offering their current employees additional perquisites and benefits as a way to keep them from jumping ship. For example, USAA, the financial services company based in San Antonio, Texas, helps relieve employees’ stress by offering concierge service (i.e., someone who runs chores for employees while they’re at work). Similarly, General Mills provides its employees with “personalized services” at its headquarters’ location to relieve employees of having to do a lot of chores on the weekend. The company hopes that instead, employees will rest and spend time with family. Discovery Communications of Silver Spring, Maryland, recently opened a subsidized childcare center for

employees’ children. Yum! Brands (which owns KFC and Taco Bell) will follow suit and open a new childcare center at its corporate office in Irvine, California. Intel is offering its employees’ children educational scholarships in the amount of $4,000. The company hopes this and other generous benefits will help keep good employees through these stressful times. Are these prerequisites and extra benefits enough to significantly lower employees’ stress levels during these challenging economic times? Probably not, but they might just signal to surviving employees that their organizations care about them; and this in itself is a positive result that may help boost employee retention and morale.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the primary reasons why many employees are experiencing high levels of stress at work nowadays? Identify and describe these reasons. 2. Why do many of the survivors of layoffs experience stress? Conventional wisdom would suggest that these employees should be happy that they didn’t get laid off. Explain your answer. 3. What are companies doing to decrease the stress levels of their employees? To what degree do you think that these steps will help them retain valued employees? Sources: M.P. McQueen, “Health Costs; Recession’s Mental Toll,” Wall Street Journal, March 7, 2010, p. 2; Kristen Gerencher, “Marketplace: Relax, You Can Beat That Stress,” January 3, 2010, Wall Street Journal, p. 3; Sue Shellenbarger, “Perking Up: Some Companies Offer Surprising New Benefits,” Wall Street Journal, March 18, 2009, p. D.1; Elizabeth Bernstein, “When a Co-Worker Is Stressed Out,” Wall Street Journal, August 26, 2008, p. D.1; Kenneth Levitt, Terry Wilson, and Edna Gilligan, “Corporate Downsizing: An Examination of the Survivors,” Journal of Global Business Issues 2, no. 2 (Summer 2008): 13–22; and Jenna Gouldreau, Gail Edmondson, and Michelle Conlin, “Dispatches From the War on Stress: Business Begins to Reckon with the Enormous Costs of Workplace Stress,” Businessweek, August 6, 2007, p. 74.

Experiential Exercise: Behavior Activity Profile—A Type A Measure Each of us displays certain kinds of behaviors, thought patterns, and personal characteristics. For each of the 21 sets of descriptions below, circle the number that you feel best describes your position between each pair. The 1. I’m always on time for appointments. 2. When someone is talking to me, chances are I’ll anticipate what they are going to say by nodding, interrupting, or finishing sentences for them.

7 7

6 6

best answer for each set of descriptions is the response that most nearly describes the way you feel, behave, or think. Answer these in terms of your regular or typical behavior, thoughts, or characteristics. 5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

I’m never quite on time. I listen quietly without showing any impatience.

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3. I frequently try to do several things at once. 4. When it comes to waiting in line (at banks, theaters, etc.), I really get impatient and frustrated. 5. I always feel rushed. 6. When it comes to my temper, I find it hard to control at times. 7. I tend to do most things like eating, walking, and talking rapidly.

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7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

I tend to take things one a time. It simply doesn’t bother me.

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

I never feel rushed. I just don’t seem to have one.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I do things slowly.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I most enjoy leisure-time activities.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I accomplished everything I needed to.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I would rather play than work.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Many things are more important.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I regularly find satisfaction in non-job pursuits, such as hobbies, friends, and family. My friends are not connected with my work.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Nothing at work is important enough to interfere with my vacation.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

People see me as relaxed and easygoing.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I do what I want to do rather than trying to satisfy others.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I tend to take a break or quit if I’m feeling fatigued.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I like the social interaction.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

I prefer people who are easygoing and take life as it comes. Frequently, “doing nothing” can be quite enjoyable. I prefer noncompetitive pursuits.

TOTAL SCORE 1–7 __________ 5 S 8. Quite honestly, the things I enjoy most are job-related activities. 9. At the end of a typical workday, I usually feel like I needed to get more done than I did. 10. Someone who knows me very well would say that I would rather work than play. 11. When it comes to getting ahead at work, nothing is more important. 12. My primary source of satisfaction comes from my job. 13. Most of my friends and social acquaintances are people I know from work. 14. I’d rather stay at work than take a vacation. TOTAL SCORE 8–14__________ 5 J 15. People who know me well would describe me as hard driving and competitive. 16. In general, my behavior is governed by a desire for recognition and achievement. 17. In trying to complete a project or solve a problem, I tend to wear myself out before I’ll give up on it. 18. When I play a game (tennis, cards, etc.), my enjoyment comes from winning. 19. I like to associate with people who are dedicated to getting ahead. 20. I’m not happy unless I’m always doing something. 21. What I enjoy most are competitive activities. TOTAL SCORE 16–21 __________ 5 H Impatience (S)

Job Involvement (J)

Hard Driving and Competitive (H)

Total Score (A) 5 S 1 J 1 H

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The Behavior Activity Profile attempts to assess the three Type A coronary-prone behavior patterns, as well as provide a total score. The three priority types of Type A coronary-prone behavior patterns follow: Items

Behavior Pattern

Characteristics

1–7

Impatience (S)

• • •

Is anxious to interrupt Fails to listen attentively Gets frustrated by waiting (e.g., in line, for others to complete a job)

8–14

Job Involvement (J)

• • •

Focal point of attention is the job Lives for the job Relishes being on the job

15–21

Hard driving/competitive (H)

• • •

Is hardworking, highly competitive Is competitive in most aspects of life—sports, work, etc. Races against the clock

1–21

Total score (A)

Total of S 1 J 1 H represents your global Type A behavior

Score ranges for total score are Score

Behavior Type

Score

Behavior Type

122 and above 100–121 90–99 80–89

Hard-core Type A Moderate Type A Low Type A Type X

70–79 50–69 40 and below

Low Type B Moderate Type B Hard-core Type B

Now you can compare your score to a sample of more than 1,200 respondents. Percentile Score

Raw Score

Percent of Individuals Scoring Lower

Males

Females

99% 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 1

____140 ____135 ____130 ____124 ____118 ____113 ____108 ____102 ____97 ____92 ____87 ____81 ____75 ____70 ____63 ____58 ____51 ____45 ____38 ____29 ____21

____132 ____126 ____120 ____112 ____106 ____101 ____95 ____90 ____85 ____80 ____74 ____69 ____63 ____58 ____53 ____48 ____42 ____36 ____31 ____26 ____21

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Experiential Exercise: Health Risk Appraisal The Health Risk Appraisal form was developed by the Canadian Department of Health and Welfare. The department’s initial testing program indicated that approximately one person out of every three who completed the form would modify some unhealthy aspects of lifestyle for at least a while. Figuring the potential payoff was worth it, the government mailed out more than 3 million copies of the questionnaire to Canadians who were receiving social security benefits. A subsequent

follow-up indicated that the initial projections of the number of recipients who altered their behavior were correct. Perhaps you will be among the one-third who make lifestyle changes as well. Choose from the three answers for each question the one answer that most nearly applies to you. The plus and minus signs next to some numbers indicate more than (1) and less than (2). Note that a few items have only two alternatives.

Exercise

_____12. Do you take drugs illegally? (a) no; (b) yes

_____1. Physical effort most often expended during the workday: (a) significant; (b) some; (c) none _____2. Participation in physical activities—skiing, golf, swimming, etc., or lawn mowing, gardening, etc.? (a) daily; (b) weekly; (c) seldom _____3. Participation in vigorous exercise program? (a) three or more days a week; (b) less than one; (c) seldom _____4. Average miles walked or jogged per day? (a) one or more; (b) less than one; (c) none _____5. Flights of stairs climbed per day? (a) 10; (b) less than 10; (c) none

_____13. Do you consume alcoholic beverages together with certain drugs (tranquilizers, barbiturates, illegal drugs)? (a) no; (b) yes _____14. Do you use painkillers improperly or excessively? (a) no; (b) yes Tobacco _____15. Cigarettes smoked per day? (a) none; (b) 1 or 2; (c) 2 _____16. Cigars smoked per day? (a) none; (b) 1 or 2; (c) 2 _____17. Pipe tobacco pouches per week? (a) none; (b) 1 or 2; (c) 2

Nutrition _____6. Are you overweight? (a) no; (b) 5 to 19 lbs. (c) 20 lbs. or more _____7. Do you eat a wide variety of foods, including something from each of the following five food groups: (1) meat, fish, poultry, dried legumes, eggs, or nuts; (2) milk or milk products; (3) bread or cereals; (4) fruits; (5) vegetables? (a) each day; (b) three times weekly; (c) less than three times weekly Alcohol _____8. Average number of bottles (12 oz.) of beer per week? (a) 0 to 7; (b) 8 to 15; (c) 16

Personal Health _____18. Do you experience periods of depression? (a) seldom; (b) occasionally; (c) frequently _____19. Does anxiety interfere with your daily activities? (a) seldom; (b) occasionally; (c) frequently _____20. Do you get enough satisfying sleep? (a) yes; (b) no _____21. Are you aware of the causes and danger of VD? (a) yes; (b) no _____22. Breast self-examination? (If not applicable, do not score) (a) monthly; (b) occasionally; (c) never

_____9. Average number of hard liquor (1 1/2 oz.) drinks per week? (a) 0 to 7; (b) 8 to 15; (c) 16

Road and Water Safety

_____10. Average number of glasses (5 oz.) of wine or cider per week? (a) 0 to 7; (b) 8 to 15; (c) 16

_____23. Mileage per year as driver or passenger? (a) less than 10,000; (b) more than 10,000

_____11. Total number of drinks per week including beer, liquor, or wine? (a) 0 to 7; (b) 8 to 15; (c) 16

_____24. Do you often exceed the speed limit? (a) no; (b) by 10 mph; (c) by 20 mph _____25. Do you wear a seatbelt? (a) always; (b) occasionally; (c) never

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_____26. Do you drive a motorcycle, moped, or snowmobile? (a) yes; (b) no

_____34. Do you ever smoke in bed? (a) no; (b) occasionally; (c) regularly

_____27. If yes to the above, do you always wear a regulation safety helmet? (a) yes; (b) no

_____35. Do you always make use of equipment provided for your safety at work? (a) yes; (b) occasionally; (c) no

_____28. Do you ever drive under the influence of alcohol? (a) never; (b) occasionally

Total Score

_____29. Do you ever drive when your ability may be affected by drugs? (a) never; (b) occasionally

A total score of 35–45 is excellent. You have a commendable lifestyle based on sensible habits and a lively awareness of personal health.

_____30. Are you aware of water safety? (a) yes; (b) no

A total score of 46–55 is good. With some minor changes, you can develop an excellent lifestyle.

_____31. If you participate in water sports or boating, do you wear a life jacket? (a) yes; (b) no

A total score of 56–65 is risky. You are taking unnecessary risks with your health. Several of your habits should be changed if potential health problems are to be avoided.

General

A total score of 66 and over is hazardous. Either you have little personal awareness of good health habits or you are choosing to ignore them. This is a danger zone.

_____32. Average time watching TV per day (in hours)? (a) 0 to 1; (b) 1 to 4; (c) 4 _____33. Are you familiar with first-aid procedures? (a) yes; (b) no

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T H R E E

Behavior within Organizations: Groups and Interpersonal Influence 8. Group and Team Behavior 9. Conflict and Negotiation 10. Power and Politics 11. Leadership: Fundamentals 12. Leadership: Emerging Perspectives

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Group and Team Behavior

Learning Objectives After completing Chapter 8, you should be able to Define The terms group and team. Describe The difference in groups and teams. Discuss Why people form groups and managers form teams. Compare The various stages of group development. 228

Identify The characteristics associated with virtual teams.

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Teams Can Change the World Effective, hard-working, and cohesive teams can have a long-lasting impact on organizations, society, and the global marketplace. A few examples of the power and impact of teams are in the following newsworthy stories.

The Invention Team Charles Batcheldor was an English machinist. John Kruesi was a Swiss clockmaker. Ludwig Boehm was a German glassblower. Francis Upton was a Princeton-trained mathematician. They were drawn to the then-isolated New Jersey hamlet of Menlo Park by the force of Thomas Edison’s genius. But it was Edison’s unique ability to tap into their skills that turned his half-formed visions into an astonishing stream of workable products. “He was never the lone inventor,” says Bill Pretzer, a curator of the Edison collection at the Henry Ford Museum. “Edison himself moves about, first to one bench, then to another, examining here, instructing there,” wrote the New York Herald. A sketch handed to Kruesi unexpectedly yielded the phonograph. The work was “strenuous but joyous,” one lab hand wrote. The boss (Edison) got as dirty as his workmen. And there was the day when the team rode Edison’s miniature locomotive to a nearby fishing hole. “The strangest thing to me is the $12 that I get each Saturday,” Upton wrote his father, “for my labor does not seem like work but like study.” It was Upton who bought the instruments that led to a breakthrough insight on electric lighting. It was Batcheldor’s nimble hands that threaded a carbon filament into a bulb that Boehm evacuated to a millionth of an atmosphere. And on October 22, 1879, when the bulb finished a 14-hour burn, the darkness filled with the cheers of five men and four nationalities.

The Twitter Team In 2006, Jack Dorsey, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams were working for a new organization called Odeo, which was a podcasting service. Dorsey and the others thought that a short message service would add a creative spark by letting everyone in the company communicate with each other. So, they built a simple Web application that would allow members of the team to send short 140-character messages to everyone else in the company and vice versa. Thus, Twitter was born. The service grew rapidly in 2009, when it expanded tenfold. Twitter continues to grow. In the first half of 2010, visitors to the U.S. website reached approximately 21 million.

The Apple Team They were known as dropouts, artists, evangelists, geniuses, iconoclasts, pirates—and friends. Sometimes even best friends. The early team of four, which grew to dozens, wanted to make a personal computer easy enough for anyone to use without fear or loathing and inexpensive enough to be affordable. But the happy few who worked on the Mac also saw in the new world of computing a potentially profound force. Their ultimate goal was to unleash, in themselves and others, limitless individual creativity. The Mac team, headed by Apple cofounder Steve Jobs, operated like a superstealth startup within the company. Holed up in a two-story building near a gas station dubbed the “Texaco Towers,” the team was intensely competitive with other Apple divisions, such as the Lisa computer. Jobs set challenging goals and deadlines: the caffeine-fueled software team once debugged for 48 hours straight rather than face him without having finished the task. There were epic battles and broken friendships—Jef Raskin, who started the Mac research project in 1979, got frustrated and left Apple in 1982. But Jobs’s famous rebel yell—“It’s better to be a pirate than join the Navy”—captured the renegade spirit that saw the team through 90-hour work-weeks at stunningly low pay.

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In 1983, after three years of labor, the Mac was born. Priced at $2,495, it featured a clean, intuitive graphic user interface that allowed nonprogrammers to use it almost instantly, without geek supervision. When it was turned on, a friendly little icon smiled out at the world. And the world smiled back—the Mac sold faster than any PC that came before. Although the Mac went on to a difficult adolescence, it was the collective expression of a cohesive, hard-working team who loved it—and marked a turning point in the history of the PC.

The Magic of an Idea Team For 10 years, MasterCard maxed out five advertising campaigns—and failed to narrow the gap with Visa. So when the company decided to get a new ad agency, it looked like desperation. To McCann Erickson, it looked like opportunity. McCann assigned a core creative team of three—Joyce King Thomas, Jeroen Bours, and Jonathan Cranin—to prepare a pitch. The trio, who had been working together for two years, conferred with the strategy team and brainstormed intensively for a month. “We were very comfortable working together, so we debated everything freely,” says Thomas. The breakthrough came to Cranin: the tag line “some things money can’t buy” to anchor the ad. Back at the office, Thomas caught the spark and began crafting a spot around it. Inspiration struck two weeks later, as Thomas and Bours batted around ideas over coffee and bagels on a Sunday morning. The first ad would be set at a baseball game, feature a list of ordinary transactions, and lead to the setup: “Priceless.” Recalls Thomas: “We knew we had it.” MasterCard agreed, even after a different spot tested better in research. “Intuitively, we knew the insights made it more than just another ad,” says chief marketing officer Larry Flanagan, then head of U.S. advertising. Gut feeling proved right. Over the past ten years or so, MasterCard has added new U.S. credit cards at a higher rate than Visa. And the award-winning campaign’s versatile format and simple appeal have also made it a global winner: spots have been tweaked for audiences in 105 countries and 48 languages. Sources: Adapted from Jessica E. Vascellaro and Emily Steel, “Twitter Rolls Out Ads,” Wall StJ.com, April 14, 2010; J. Mullins and R. Komisar, “A Business Plan? Or a Journey to Plan B?” MIT Sloan Management Review 51, no. 3 (2010): 1–5; “Six Teams That Changed the World,” CNN Money.com, accessed at http://money.cnn.com/ 2006/05/31/magazines/fortune/ sixteams_greatteams_fortune_061206/index.htm (contributions made by Jerry Useem, Ellen McGirt, Eugenia Levenson); and Jeffrey S. Young and William S. Simon, iCon Steve Jobs: The Greatest Second Act in the History of Business (New York: Wiley, 2006).

group Collection of individuals in which behavior and/ or performance of one member is influenced by behavior and/or performance of other members.

This chapter examines groups and teams in organizations. As the opening vignette illustrates, teams can have a long-lasting impact on organizational effectiveness. Groups and teams in organizations can alter the individual’s motivations or attitudes and can influence the behavior of individuals in an organizational setting. Organizational behavior is more than the logical composite of the behavior of individuals; it is also the behavior of groups that interact and the activities within groups. This chapter provides a model for understanding the nature of groups in organizations. The chapter begins by defining the various types of groups, reasons for their formation, and characteristics of groups. Next, a particular type of task group, a team, is defined and reasons managers form teams are given, as are requirements for forming effective teams. Finally, the concepts of roles and role conflict are discussed.

The Meaning of a Group In this book, a group is defined as Two or more employees who interact with each other in such a manner that the behavior and/or performance of a member is influenced by the behavior and/or performance of other members.1

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Types of Groups

Groups created by managerial decision to accomplish stated goals of the organization.

An organization has technical requirements that arise from its stated goals. Accomplishment of these goals requires that certain tasks be performed and that employees be assigned to perform these tasks.2 As a result, most employees are members of a group based on their positions in the organization; these are formal groups. In addition, whenever individuals associate on a fairly continuous basis, groups tend to form whose activities may be different from those required by the organization; these are informal groups. Both formal groups and informal groups exhibit common characteristics.

informal groups

Formal Groups

formal groups

Groups that arise from individual efforts and develop around common interests and friendships rather than deliberate design.

The demands and processes of the organization lead to the formation of two types of formal groups: command and task.

Command Group The command group, specified by the organization chart, comprises the subordinates who report directly to a given supervisor. The authority relationship between a department manager and the supervisors or between a senior nurse and her subordinates exemplifies a command group.

Task Group A task group comprises the employees who work together to complete a particular task or project. For example, activities of clerks in an insurance company are required tasks. When an accident claim is filed, several clerks must communicate and coordinate with one another if the claim is to be handled properly. These required tasks and interactions facilitate the formation of a task group.3 Nurses assigned to duty in the emergency room of a hospital usually constitute a task group because certain activities are required when a patient is treated. A special type of task group is called a team. Team performance is affected by all the factors that influence groups, but teams are also affected by additional factors that do not affect the productivity of other sorts of groups. For this reason, the concept of teams will be discussed separately later in the chapter.

Informal Groups Informal groups are natural groupings of people in the work situation who come together in response to social needs. In other words, informal groups do not arise as a result of deliberate design but rather evolve naturally. Two specific informal groups exist: interest and friendship.

Interest Groups Individuals who may not be members of the same command or task group may affiliate to achieve some mutual objective. The objectives of such groups are not related to those of the organization but are specific to each group. Employees banding together to present a unified front to management for more benefits and waiters pooling their tips are examples of interest groups.

Friendship Groups Many groups form because members have something in common, such as age, gender, political beliefs, desire to play the same sport, or ethnic background. These friendship groups often extend their interaction and communication to off-the-job activities.

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If employees’ affiliation patterns were documented, it would become readily apparent that they belong to numerous and often overlapping groups. A distinction has been made between two broad classifications of groups: formal and informal. The major difference between them is that formal command and task groups are designated by the formal organization as a means to an end. Informal interest and friendship groups are important for their own sake. They satisfy a basic human need for association.4 Even though friendship groups are informal, managers should make efforts to become aware of and, if possible, positively influence such groups, directing efforts toward organizational goals.5 Indeed, in some organizations, the associations that individuals form through friendship groups are more powerful than formal affiliations.6 Some suggested ways to influence these groups are through building good relations with the informal group’s leader, providing group behavior and human relations training for the leader, and supporting members’ efforts in sustaining the group relationship.

Why People Form Groups Formal and informal groups form for various reasons.7 Some reasons involve needs, proximity, attractions, goals, and economics.

The Satisfaction of Needs The desire for need satisfaction can be a strong motivating force leading to group formation.8 Specifically, some employees’ security, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs can be satisfied to a degree by their affiliation with groups.

Security Without the group to lean on when various management demands are made, certain employees may feel they are standing alone, facing management and the entire organizational system. This feeling can be even stronger for new employees. This “aloneness” leads to a degree of insecurity. By being a member of a group, the employee can become involved in group activities and discuss management demands with other employees who hold supportive views. In situations solely affecting the individual employee, the member can still count on the group to support her actions.9 Interaction and communication among the group’s members serve as a buffer to management demands. The need for a buffer may be especially strong in two cases. First, a new employee may depend heavily on the group for aid in correctly performing his job. Second, as a result of many corporate downsizing efforts, individuals depend on group support as a means to adjust to new demands and overcome feelings of insecurity.10

Social The gregariousness of people stimulates their need for affiliation; a desire to be part of a group points out the intensity of social needs. The need to socialize exists not only on the job but away from the workplace, as evidenced by the vast array of social, political, civic, and fraternal organizations people can join.

Esteem For a variety of reasons, a certain group in a particular work environment may be viewed by employees as having a high level of prestige (technical competence outside activities, etc.). Consequently, membership in this group carries with it a certain status not enjoyed by nonmembers. For employees with high esteem needs, membership in such a group can provide much-needed satisfaction.11

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Proximity and Attraction Interpersonal interaction can result in group formation. Two important facets of interpersonal interaction are proximity and attraction. Proximity involves the physical distance between employees performing a job. Attraction designates the degree to which people are drawn to each other because of perceptual, attitudinal, performance, or motivational similarity.12 Individuals who work in proximity have numerous opportunities to exchange ideas, thoughts, and attitudes about various on- and off-the-job activities. These exchanges often result in some type of group formation. Proximity also makes it possible for individuals to learn about the characteristics of other people. To sustain the interaction and interest, a group is often formed. For example, space station crews need to be trained in interpersonal, emotional support, and group interaction skills.13 Because of proximity and attraction due to the nature of the work task, group formation is inevitable. Whole-crew training is indispensable for crew productivity and well-being. Such training circumvents many problems faced by long-duration space flights, where reliance on ground-based professionals is impractical.

Group Goals A group’s goals, if clearly understood, can be the reasons an individual is attracted to that group. For example, an individual may join a group that meets after work to become familiar with new production methods to be implemented in the organization over the next year. The person who voluntarily joins the after-hours group believes that learning the new system is a necessary and important goal for employees. Identifying group goals is not always possible. The assumption that formal organizational groups have clear goals must be tempered by the understanding that perception, attitudes, personality, and learning can distort goals.14 For example, a new employee may never be formally told the goals of the unit that he’s joined. By observing the behavior and attitudes of others, individuals may conclude what they believe the goals to be. These perceptions may or may not be accurate.

Economics In many cases, groups form because individuals believe that they can derive greater economic benefits from their jobs if they organize. Indeed, group pay incentives can be extremely valuable in supporting the way management wants to run the company.15 For example, individuals working at different points on an assembly line may be paid on a group incentive basis in which the group’s production determines each member’s wages. By working and cooperating as a group, the individuals may obtain higher economic benefits. Conversely, by paying for individual performance, the structure may get in the way of group productivity by stressing individual, versus group, dependencies.16 By matching incentive plans with a company’s work culture and the type of group being used, the group’s processes can be better aligned with those of the organization.17

Stages of Development Groups learn, just as individuals do. Group performance depends both on individual learning and on how well members learn to work with one another.18 For example, a new-product committee formed to develop a response to a competitor may evolve into an effective team, with the interests of the company being most important; however, it may be ineffective if its members are more concerned about their individual departmental goals than about developing a response to a competitor. This section describes some general stages through which groups evolve and points out the sequential developmental process involved.

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Behavioral scientists and managers are interested in how groups develop. A number of models attempt to trace the group development process. Two models stand out in the explanations offered for group development: a five-stage model and the punctuated equilibrium model.

The Five-Stage Model This model explains the group development process in terms of a maturity cycle.19 The five stages are referred to as follows: 1. Forming. This is the breaking the ice, getting acquainted stage. Group members are trying out behaviors, testing their position, and asking questions of other group members. The group is establishing loose, but specific, ground rules. 2. Storming. This stage is characterized by conflict because members are arguing, debating, and experimenting with roles, advice offered by other members, and attempts to move into leadership roles. The group’s hierarchy starts to take shape. 3. Norming. The group starts to work more effectively together. There is a sense of togetherness or attraction to being a part of a group. This is the beginning of cohesiveness. A set of group-driven expectations is communicated within the group. 4. Performing. A group structure, hierarchy, and norms are in place. The group is focused on accomplishing goals and being an efficient unit. This is an important stage in that the group is mature. 5. Adjourning. The group prepares to disband. The goals have been accomplished and tasks finished. Some members will be saddened over the loss of member contact and cohesiveness in the future. There is no set time limit for progressing along the five-stage cycle.20 In fact, some groups may engage in more than one stage at a time. For example, storming (debating, arguing) may be occurring at the same time the group is performing. The boundaries between the various stages are not clear.21 The five-stage model should be used as a general framework but not a perfectly accurate snapshot of how groups develop.

The Punctuated Equilibrium Model Some believe that the five-stage model is too static and unrealistic. The punctuated equilibrium model (PEM) presents group development as a three-phase concept.22 The first phase occurs when groups define tasks, establish goals, and consider various ways to execute the steps of the plan or project. Somewhere along a time continuum, the group decides to change its perspectives and take action. The group reaches its own point of inertia or equilibrium. The group reaches the point of equilibrium when it realizes that time is running out. After this realization phase, there is then a final phase to accomplish tasks. Research has found that the movement from phase 1 to phase 2 is about halfway between the first meeting and the final deadline. A sudden sense of urgency seems to take over and motivates members. The pattern of PEM is displayed in Figure 8.1. As illustrated, the first phase takes about half of a group’s cycle. Then a burst of energy to make progress on the tasks occurs.23 Finally, there is a “last ditch” push to complete the project on a positive note. The PEM is more applicable to project teams and temporary groups than is other models. An example of a temporary group would be a student team with a class project due at the end of the semester. A recent study found support for the PEM with college students who after receiving feedback regarding their initial exam grades in a course increased their effort (i.e., increased their attendance and took advantage of extra credit opportunities) to achieve a grade that was more in line with their goals.24

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FIGURE 8.1

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235

Outstanding

Approximation of thePunctured Equilibrium Model

Performance

Good

Final energy burst Sudden change

Phase 3

Average Phase 2

Low

Phase 1 Deadline

Start Time

Characteristics of Groups As groups evolve through their various stages of development, they begin to exhibit certain characteristics: structure, status hierarchy, roles, norms, leadership, cohesiveness, and conflict. Conflict in groups is such an important topic that it will be the subject of the next chapter. This section examines the other characteristics of groups. Understanding group behavior requires an awareness of these general characteristics.25

Structure Within any group, some type of structure evolves over time. Group members are differentiated on the basis of such factors as expertise, aggressiveness, power, leadership skills, and status; each member occupies a position in the group. The pattern of relationships among the positions constitutes a group structure.26 Members of the group evaluate each position’s prestige, status, and importance of the group. In most cases, status differences among positions create a hierarchical group structure. Status in formal groups is usually based on positioning in the formal organization, while status in informal groups can be based on anything relevant to the group (e.g., golf scores, ability to communicate with management). Other members expect the occupant of each position to enact certain behaviors. The set of expected behaviors associated with a position in the structure constitutes the role of that position’s occupant.

Status Hierarchy Status and position are so similar that the terms are often interchangeable. The status assigned to a particular position is typically a consequence of certain characteristics that differentiate one position from other positions. In some cases, a person is assigned status because of such factors as job seniority, age, or ability. For example, the oldest worker may be perceived as being more technically proficient and is therefore attributed status by a group of technicians. Whenever the other engineers need help with a particularly complicated technical issue, they may consult this “guru” for useful advice. Thus, assigned status may have nothing to do with the formal status hierarchy.

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Roles Each person in the group structure, including its leaders, has an associated role that consists of the expected behaviors of the occupant of that position.27 The director of nursing services in a hospital is expected to organize and control the department of nursing and to assist in preparing and administering its budget. A nursing supervisor, on the other hand, is expected to supervise the activities of nursing personnel engaged in specific nursing services, such as obstetrics, pediatrics, and surgery. These expected behaviors generally are agreed to not only by the occupants but also by members of the nursing group and other hospital personnel. In addition to the expected role, there is a perceived role and an enacted role. The perceived role is the set of behaviors that a person in a position believes he should enact. (In some cases, the perceived role may correspond to the expected role.) The enacted role, in contrast, is the behavior that a person actually carries out. Fairly stable or permanent groups typically foster good agreement between expected and perceived roles. But conflict and frustration may result from difference in the three roles. When the enacted role deviates too much from the expected role, the person can either become more like the expected role or leave the group. An interesting prison experiment that illustrates the powerful nature of expected and enacted roles was conducted by Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University. He and his associates created a prison in the basement of a Stanford University building. Students were hired and paid $15 per day to serve as either a prisoner or a guard.28 The local police department was brought into the experiment to arrest each prisoner, bring prisoners from their homes or dorm rooms to the prison, and create a record of their arrest. The prisoners then began to serve a two-week sentence. The guards operated the prison as the authority in charge. Physical violence was not permitted. The guards worked eight-hour shifts, but the prisoners remained in jail 24 hours each day. The prisoners and guards took on their roles quickly. The guards became forceful, authoritative, and abusive. The prisoners became passive, obedient, and depressed. The experiment was so realistic and powerful that researchers had to stop the simulation after six days. The roles were accepted and acted out so thoroughly that the stop was ordered to protect everyone involved from further psychological and emotional distress.

Norms norms Generally agreed-upon standards of individual and group behavior developed as a result ofmember interaction over time.

Norms are the standards shared by the members of a group.29 They have certain characteristics that are important to group members. First, norms are formed only with respect to things that have significance for the group. They may be written, but they’re often communicated orally to members. In many cases, they are never formally stated but somehow are known by group members. Second, norms are accepted in various degrees by group members. Some are accepted completely, others only partially. And third, norms may apply to every group member or to only some group members. Both formal and informal groups may have a variety of norms. For example, most groups have loyalty norms fostering the development of a strong degree of loyalty and commitment from their members. Members are expected to do certain things (e.g., work late, accept transfers, help out other members) to prove they are loyal. Other groups have formal or informal dress norms. Company salesforce members may all dress similarly (e.g., in suits) to present the company’s desired image to customers; people working in a customer support call center for online retailers like Overstock.com, eBay, or Amazon.com work away from customers and may come to work in very casual clothing. Finally, groups have resource allocation norms and performance norms. Resource allocation norms of a formal organization relate to how pay, promotions, and status symbols (e.g., office size, reserved parking, assistant) should be allocated. Informal groups may also have allocation

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TABLE 8.1 Examples of Positive and Negative Norms

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Positive Norms

Negative Norms

1. People defend the company when others criticize it.

1. In our company, they’re always trying to take advantage of us.

2. Our people always try to improve, even when things are going well.

2. There’s no point in trying to work harder; nobody else does.

3. Around here, people are good listeners and seek out the opinions of others.

3. Around here, it’s dog-eat-dog and always watch your back.

4. Our managers and supervisors really care about their employees.

4. In our organization, it’s best to hide your problems and avoid your supervisor.

norms regarding such informal rewards as who works with whom or who gets helped and who does the helping. Performance norms relate to evaluating satisfactory performance. In formal groups, this may be made relatively clear by management; but as we shall see, performance norms may not be accepted by the informal group. In fact, informal groups may have performance norms of their own. Table 8.1 contains examples of some positive and negative norms, as expressed in one study.30 Managers must take into account both formal and informal norms when they try to assemble high-performance groups.31 An example of negative group pressure and norms is illustrated in an experiment reported by Asch.32 He devised a study of groups of eight to ten college students who evaluated pairs of cards such as the example presented in Figure 8.2. In Asch’s experiment, the students in each group were seated around a table. All but one of them were actually the researcher’s confidants. The group was shown a series of cards of vertical lines of different lengths (Figure 8.2), and each person was asked to say which of the lines (Card B) was the same length as the line displayed in Card A. One after the other, the members announced their decision. The confidants had been instructed to give an incorrect response. The subject sat in the next to last seat so that all but one had given the incorrect answer before he or she provided his or her response. The average student conformed to every group response on 32 percent of the trials, and 74 percent of the subjects conformed to the incorrect response at least once. The results of the Asch experiment were astonishing, especially since the correct answer was entirely obvious. Subjects had to override the evidence they observed or provide an answer that conformed to the others. When interviewed afterward, subjects said that they had been influenced by group pressure, not wanting to appear silly, and the need to avoid criticism from others. Each student perceived the group as a reference group that provided information through their responses on the group norms. In Asch’s later experiments, he introduced others who disagreed with the consensus. This disagreement led to a significant increase in the subject’s readiness to disagree with the FIGURE 8.2

1

Asch Comparison Cards

A

B

2

3

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dominant view. Because the subject had some social support (e.g., one, two, or three other individuals), he or she was more likely to resist conformity, pressure, and perceived norms. The Asch experiment has been repeated around the world. In collectivist countries, where the group approach dominates over the individual approach, there were higher levels of conformity.33 Managers should be aware that blindly accepting group conformity can pose serious problems in attempting to optimize performance in a work setting.

Leadership The leadership role in groups is a crucial group characteristic because the leader plays an important role in determining group success.34 The leader of a group exerts some influence over group members. In the formal group, the leader can exercise legitimately sanctioned power. That is, the leader can reward or punish members who don’t comply with directives, orders, or rules. The leadership role is also a significant factor in an informal group. The person who becomes an informal group leader is generally a respected, high-status member who 1. Contributes to the group in accomplishing its goals. 2. Enables members to satisfy needs. 3. Embodies the values of the group. In essence, the leader is a personification of the values, motives, and aspirations of the members. 4. Is the choice of the group members to represent their viewpoint when interacting with other group leaders. 5. Is a facilitator of group conflict, an initiator of group actions, and concerned with maintaining the group as a functioning unit. Leaders are rare. Often, members of a group look for someone to follow.35 Becoming an effective group leader doesn’t necessarily require charm or a library of theories waiting to be applied. It does, however, require vision, creativity, clear goals, a willingness to work horizontally and vertically, and good communication skills.36 A good leader focuses on engaging in conversations that create, take care of, and initiate new commitments toward actions leading to common goals—especially on conversations that secure effective cooperative action within an organization.37 At W.L. Gore & Associates (the maker of GORE-TEX), there are no managers or formal chain of command. In this leadership environment, anyone can be a team leader based on her particular “knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, track record and ability to attract followers.”38 Whether in charge of a formal or informal group, the leader must be both open (encouraging members to participate) and authoritarian (intervening when necessary to accomplish group goals).39 Indeed, a good leader must play social, spanning, and organizing roles.40

Cohesiveness cohesiveness Strength of group members’ desires to remain in the group and their commitment to the group.

Formal and informal groups seem to possess a closeness or commonness of attitude, behavior, and performance. This closeness, referred to as cohesiveness, is generally regarded as a force acting on the members to remain in a group that is greater than the forces pulling members away from a group. Joining a group allows an individual to have a sense of belonging and feelings of morale.41 A cohesive group, then, involves individuals who are attracted to one another. A group that is low in cohesiveness doesn’t possess interpersonal attractiveness for the members. There are, of course, numerous sources of attraction to a group. A group may be attractive to an individual because42 1. The goals of the group and the members are compatible and clearly specified. 2. The group has a charismatic leader. 3. The reputation of the group indicates that the group successfully accomplishes its tasks.

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TABLE 8.2 Relationship between Group Cohesiveness and Agreement with Organizational Goals Agreement with Organization Goals

Degree of Group Cohesiveness

Low

High

Low

Performance probably oriented away from organizational goals.

Performance probably oriented toward achivement of organizational goals.

High

Performance oriented away from organizational goals.

Performance oriented toward achievement of organizational goals.

4. The group is small enough to permit members to have their opinions heard and evaluated by others. 5. The members are attractive in that they support one another and help each other overcome obstacles and barriers to personal growth and development. Because highly cohesive groups consist of individuals who are motivated to be together, there’s a tendency to expect effective group performance. This logic isn’t supported conclusively by research evidence. In general, as the cohesiveness of a work group increases, the level of conformity to group norms also increases. But the group norms may be inconsistent with those of the organization.

Cohesiveness and Performance The concept of cohesiveness is important for understanding groups in organizations. A group’s degree of cohesiveness can have positive or negative effects, depending on how well group goals match those of the formal organization. Four distinct relationships are possible, as Table 8.2 shows. The table indicates that if cohesiveness is high and the group accepts and agrees with formal organizational goals, then group behavior will be positive from the formal organization’s standpoint. However, if the group is highly cohesive but its goals aren’t congruent with those of the formal organization, then group behavior will be negative from the formal organization’s standpoint. Table 8.2 indicates that if a group is low in cohesiveness and members have goals not in agreement with those of management, then the results probably are negative from the organization’s standpoint. Behavior is more on an individual basis than on a group basis because of the low cohesiveness. A group can be low in cohesiveness and yet have members’ goals agree with those of the formal organization. Here, the results are probably positive, although again more on an individual basis than on a group basis.

Groupthink

groupthink A cohesive group’s desire for agreement interferes with the group’s consideration of alternative solutions.

Highly cohesive groups are important forces in organizational behavior. In other words, the organization should place people with many similarities in an isolated setting, give them a common goal, and reward them for performance. On the surface, this may look like a good idea. However, one author has provided a provocative analysis of highly cohesive groups.43 Irving Janis studied foreign policy decisions made by several presidential administrations and concluded that these groups were highly cohesive and close-knit. He labeled their decision-making process groupthink. Janis defines groupthink as the “deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment” in the interest of group solidarity. In his book, he described the following characteristics associated with groupthink: 1. Illusion of invulnerability. Members of groups believe that they are invincible. 2. Tendency to moralize. Any opposition to group views is characterized by members as weak, evil, or unintelligent.

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Groupthink and War

The theory of groupthink remains influential in analyzing how groups make decisions. Prior to Janis, social psychologists explored the implications of small group settings. Janis’s analysis has expanded the groupthink analysis into studies of organizational and foreign affairs decision making. Applications of groupthink analysis have been applied to presidential decisionmaking. Presidents Kennedy, Nixon, Carter, Reagan, and Bush have provided interesting insight into how different styles fare in group settings. Presidential decision making in the 1990–1991 Persian Gulf crisis after Iraq’s August 2, 1990, invasion of Kuwait provides a glimpse of how President George H. W. Bush operated in group settings. Group cohesiveness was important to President Bush. The camaraderie was exceptional despite a few confrontations between John Sununu and C. Boyden Gray. Brent Scowcroft was the president’s long-standing confidant. The president’s inner cohesive circle was referred to as the “gang of eight.” While President Bush was cordial and at times encouraged open discussions and debates, he did not place a high priority on each group member airing doubts or raising objections. Nor did he assign anyone the devil’s advocate role. The gang of eight didn’t follow any particular process for evaluating alternatives. This is in stark contrast to President John F. Kennedy’s decision-making group during the Cuban Missile

crisis (1962). His group laid out at least 10 alternatives and discussed them methodically. President Bush, supported by Scowcroft, knew what he wanted to do and took the lead in any discussions. President Bush’s team was homogeneous in terms of social and ideological views. Maintaining harmony was made easier because of the similar backgrounds and friendly atmosphere. This resulted in few challenges of the consensus reached about how to deal with Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait. Although groupthink existed in President Bush’s gang-of-eight meetings, the end result was the accomplishment of reversing Iraq’s acquisition of Kuwait. The president’s leadership and ability overcame the potential groupthink problems. He was able to assemble world leaders and build a U.S.–led coalition that engaged in a ground war that proved easier than even the gang of eight anticipated. Groupthink existed in President Bush’s team, and there was a positive outcome. But it is not always the case. Groupthink can generate negative or positive outcomes, as history has illustrated in organizations and in political situations. Sources: Marcus Goncalves, Team Building (New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2007); and Steve A. Yetiv, “Groupthink and the Gulf Crisis,” British Journal of Political Science 33 (2003): 419–442.

3. Feeling of unanimity. Each member of the group supports the leader’s decisions. Members may have reservations about decisions but do not share their views. Rather than appearing weak, members keep views to themselves. This indicates how pressure toward group solidarity can distort individual members’ judgments. 4. Pressure to conform. Formal and informal attempts are made to discourage discussion of divergent views. Groups exert great pressure on individual members to conform. 5. Opposing ideas dismissed. Any individual or outside group that criticizes or opposes a decision receives little or no attention from the group. Group members tend to show strong favoritism toward their own ideas in the manner by which information is processed and evaluated, thus guaranteeing that their ideas will win out. Certainly, some level of group cohesiveness is necessary for a group to tackle a problem. If seven individuals from seven different organizational units are assigned a task, the task may never be completed effectively. The point, however, is that when it comes to cohesiveness, more may not necessarily be better. While members of task groups may redefine solving a problem to mean reaching agreement rather than making the best decision, members of cohesive groups may redefine it to mean preserving relations among group members and preserving the image of the group. Groupthink illustrates the impact of group dynamics and cohesiveness of group performance. The accompanying OB at Work feature examines George H. W. Bush’s close-knit group meetings involving Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990. A study examined effects of group loyalty and distortion tendencies in management teams.44 Results showed that once groups have worked together on a few successful group

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activities, the resultant group cohesion manifests itself in the form of in-group loyalty, whereby members related their best ideas to a measure of their group’s value and status. Loyalty to the group decision overwhelmed logic and denied the existence of value in ideas from other sources. The groupthink phenomenon has been used to explain such events as the subprime mortgage meltdown that contributed to a U.S. (and worldwide) recession, the Ford Explorer-Bridgestone/ Firestone rollover debacle which led to several vehicle operators’ deaths and the recall of 6.5 million tires, Merck’s delay in recalling their drug Vioxx even after the firm allegedly had evidence that the drug increased some patients’ risk of having a heart attack and stroke, and ethically questionable decisions in many other large organizations. Indeed, one researcher reviewing the situation surrounding the decision to launch the space shuttle Challenger blames groupthink for the disaster.45 Leaders had a preferred solution and engaged in behaviors designed to promote the launch rather than to critically appraise other alternatives. Figure 8.3 presents a groupthink framework that managers could use to evaluate their own situation. FIGURE 8.3 Janis’s Groupthink Framework Source: Based on Irving Janis and Leon Mann, Decision Making (New York: The Free Press, 1977).

Antecedent conditions

Observable consequences

Decision makers constitute a cohesive group

+ Structural faults of the organization 1. Insulation of the group 2. Lack of tradition of impartial leadership 3. Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures 4. Homogeneity of members' social background and ideology, etc.

+ Provocative situational conflict 1. High stress from external threats with low hope of better solution than the leader's 2. Low self-esteem temporarily induced by a. Recent failures that make member's inadequacies salient b. Excessive difficulties on current decision-making tasks that lower each member's sense of self-efficacy c. Moral dilemmas: Apparent lack of feasible alternatives except ones that violate ethical norms

Concurrence seeking (groupthink tendency)

Symptoms of groupthink Type I. Overestimation of the group 1. Illusion of invulnerability 2. Belief in inherent morality of the group 3. Collective rationalization 4. Out-group stereotypes Type II. Pressures toward uniformity 5. Self-censorship 6. Illusion of unanimity 7. Direct pressure on dissenters 8. Self-appointed mindguards

Symptoms of defective decision making 1. Incomplete survey of alternatives 2. Incomplete survey of objectives 3. Failure to examine risks of preferred choice 4. Failure to reappraise initially rejected alternatives 5. Poor information search 6. Selective bias in processing information at hand 7. Failure to work out contingency plans

Low probability of successful outcome

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When considering how groupthink affects decision making, start with a cohesive group. Structural and situational issues also enter the decision-making arena. As displayed in Figure 8.3, there are several symptoms of groupthink and defective decision making, which contribute to a low probability of a successful outcome. Janis theorized that the symptoms presented in Figure 8.3 require leadership to overcome their effect on reaching optimal decisions.

Social Loafing

social loafing When individuals within a group hold back what they contribute to the group’s effort and performance.

In strong and cohesive social groups and teams, each member’s attraction to remain a member is much stronger than the desire to leave. The tendency to shirk responsibilities and not to carry a fair share of the load is not an issue in cohesive teams and groups. When individuals shirk or contribute less than their optimal effort, there exists a social loafing effect. This effect has also been referred to as the free rider problem or slacking. In an experiment, Ringelmann, a French agricultural engineer, noticed that as you added more and more people to a group pulling on a rope, the total force exerted by the group rose, but the average force exerted by each group member declined. The Ringelmann effect (e.g., designated as social loafing) thus describes the inverse relationship between the size of a group or team and the magnitude of the members’ individual contribution to the accomplishment of the task.46 The social loafing effect based on Ringelmann’s research is presented in Figure 8.4. Managers are faced with the question: Why does social loafing occur? Perhaps the most probable explanation is that when members “work together,” their outputs are pooled so

FIGURE 8.4 Social Loafing (Ringelmann’s Findings)

Individuals

1

Rope pull1 (RP1)

2

Rope pull2 (RP2)

3

Rope pull3 (RP3)

4

Rope pull4 (RP4)

1 Total rope pull (G)group

2

3

Rope pull

Total rope pull (G) , RP1 1 RP2 1 RP3 1 RP4

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that evaluation of individual output is not possible. Thus, they can receive neither credit nor blame for their performances. In essence, they can hide within the group or team. Recognizing the existence of this phenomenon is useful, but managers need to ask how social loafing can be minimized. If the work being done can actually be reconfigured so that individuals do receive credit or blame for their separate inputs, then social loafing is less likely to occur. Of course, it is easier to state this than to actually operationalize it—how do we assign credit or blame to the individuals working on a project with a deadline? If and when possible, managers would like to dispense rewards. However, in many situations it is difficult to pinpoint the workers and the loafers.47 Unique and challenging tasks have been shown to minimize social loafing. This is consistent with motivational theories pertaining to the nature of work. In general, it has been shown that people are motivated by interesting work (e.g., varied, significant, autonomous, unique). When motivated, individuals are less inclined to engage in social loafing.48

The Nature and Types of Teams Work groups and teams are not the same in terms of development and maturity. Teams are small in size (e.g., 2 to 20 individuals) and have members with complementary skills who have reached what is referred to as the mature or performing stage. The structure, hierarchy, and norms of a team are in place. Many groups never reach this stage of development.49 The use of teams has become an increasingly popular work design in all types of organizations, both domestically and globally.50 As discussed earlier, teams are a special type of task group, consisting of two or more individuals responsible for the achievement of a goal or objective. All teams exist to solve problems. Thus, it is accurate to state that problem solving is an activity that teams practice continuously. Teams can be classified in a number of ways based on their duration and objectives: problem-solving, virtual, cross-functional, skunkworks, and self-directed work teams.

Problem-Solving Teams Problem-solving teams are formed on a temporary basis to address a specific problem that is confronting the organization. For example, teams of engineers, geologists, and other experts from British Petroleum PLC and the U.S. government worked to contain the massive oil leak about one mile beneath in the Gulf of Mexico caused by the sinking of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig on April 22, 2010.51 In less dramatic circumstances, a marketing manager may assemble a team to evaluate the effects a competitor’s new advertising campaign may have on company sales. As seen by the examples, the duration of a problem-solving team’s existence is usually short in nature. For the most part, problemsolving teams are composed of individuals from the same department or area of an organization who meet together to address and solve a specific problem. Once the problem is solved, the team disbands.

Virtual Teams As organizations aggressively pursue ways to cut costs, decrease product cycle times, increase customer responsiveness, and integrate more fully with suppliers, many are creating and using virtual teams to help achieve these objectives. Other benefits of virtual teams include the ability to offer employees more flexible work arrangements (e.g., telecommuting) that provide 24-hour-a-day, 7-day-a-week customer service for geographically dispersed customers in different time zones and decrease the amount of travel time and expenses that team meetings often require.52

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Defined as “a team that relies on interactive technology to work together when separated by physical distance,”53 virtual teams can draw on a variety of interactive technology that includes traditional e-mail, instant messaging, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, Web casts, meeting managers, white boards, and bulletin boards.54 A recent study analyzed 80 software development teams (with up to nine members on each team) from 28 laboratories based throughout the world in such countries as Brazil, China, Germany, India, and the United States.55 The researchers reported the following best practices related to managing dispersed virtual teams: 1. Focus on social skills. Virtual team members are usually chosen because of their technical skills and work experience. However, team members also need to possess strong social and teamwork skills to help them collaborate in a virtual environment. 2. Encourage self-leadership across team. Geographically distant team members can’t walk over to the next office to seek the advice of the team leader whenever a problem or conflict with another team member arises. So, team members need to be self-sufficient and aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. 3. Arrange face-to-face meetings. Even though the team is dispersed, members need to come together for face-to-face meetings at key points during a project’s life cycle. For example, at least one or two initial face-to-face meetings are needed at the start of the project to identify the scope and nature of the project, and to help team members develop trust with one another. 4. Foster a global mindset among team members. Team members need to see themselves as part of a global network and develop a global skill set and perspective that will help them transfer knowledge throughout the global organization. Nestlé, IBM, and SAP use international virtual assignments to help employees develop a global mindset. General Electric is in the process of rolling out a variety of real-time collaboration tools to its 340,000 employees and to several of its customers and suppliers.56 Included in the rollout are tools that will allow employees to do the following: • • • •

Use instant messaging and real-time conferencing and application sharing. Create shared Web workspaces, even if the user is not technically proficient. Break down projects into tasks and track progress. Transfer best practices from completed projects to new projects.

In addition, customers and suppliers will have access to real-time data and internal processes within GE’s intranet. Officials at GE argue that these features will help revolutionize the company as it continues into the 21st century.57 Other organizations are not moving as quickly as GE into the world of virtual teams and collaborative technology. For such work arrangements to be successful, several factors need to be considered. First, the technology should fit the purpose of the collaboration. If all members of a group need to receive the same information quickly, then a bulletin board or group e-mail is appropriate. If training needs to be done, then a Web conference with real-time white board and data sharing may be more suitable. Second, virtual team members must be carefully selected. Choosing members who have the necessary skills, experience, work ethic, and interpersonal skills is critical to effective team functioning. Third, trust between team members should be cultivated early in the process. Face-to-face meetings, team-building training exercises, or both should be used during the initial periods of team formation to facilitate the development of trust. This trust will be critical later in the process when problems, disagreements, and deadlines stress the relationships of members who can’t just walk down the hallway to “work things out.” Last, teams need to develop a sense of purpose and shared goals. Leaders must be able to set a vision for the team and

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Want Some International Experience? Get Assigned to a Global Virtual Team

Successful organizations like Microsoft rely on virtual teams. Everyone in Microsoft is involved in virtual teams in one way or another, which spans all aspects of day-to-day working—from formal project teams focused on internal and external clients to informal networking with colleagues. At TRW Automotive, a global manufacturer of automotive components based in Michigan, a large number of its 66,000 employees worldwide engage in online virtual meetings and team projects with other employees from different cultures and host country markets. Joining or getting assigned to a virtual team that has members from different countries and getting assigned to tasks that extend beyond the home country are good ways to begin acquiring international skills and a global perspective. As a member of a global virtual team, you’ll be interacting frequently (via face-to-face meetings, Web conferences, phone calls, e-mails, and instant messages) with members from all over the world. Although the experience will not afford members the same level of cross-cultural learning as moving to and working in a host country, work in a global virtual team

can expose participants to a wide variety of perspectives, languages, work styles, and creative nontraditional approaches to problem solving. As an added bonus, team members might be able to leverage their experience on the global virtual team to a more in-depth, long-term international assignment that requires relocation to a host country. If the team member’s organization is like Nestlé, IBM, and General Electric, all of which value international experience acquisition by their employees, then joining a global virtual team and taking international assignments can enhance one’s career prospects within the organization in the long run. Sources: F. Siebdrat, M. Hoegl, and H. Ernst, “How to Manage Virtual Teams,” MIT Sloan Management Review 50, no. 4 (2009): 63–68; H. Duckworth, “How TRW Automotive Helps Global Virtual Teams Perform at the Top of Their Game,” Global Business and Organizational Excellence 28, no. 1 (November 2008): 6; Annie Garfoot, “Virtual Team Case Study: Microsoft,” IT Training, June 2, 2004, pp. 1–2; and Wally Bock, “Some Rules for Virtual Teams,” The Journal for Quality and Participation (Fall 2004): 43.

be able to help resolve conflicts between members and assist members in overcoming obstacles.58 Microsoft is another company that embraces the virtual team approach. As the accompanying OB and Your Career feature suggests, employees can acquire some international experience by joining a global virtual team. As companies like Microsoft, GE, Alcoa, AT&T, Pfizer, Ernst & Young, Shell Oil, and Sun Microsystems continue to experiment with and use virtual teams across their global businesses, such practices will become increasingly commonplace in organizations of all types and sizes.59

Cross-Functional Teams Recently, a growing number of organizations have begun using teams that are composed of individuals from different departments or work areas that come together on a task or project basis. These groups, called cross-functional teams, monitor, standardize, and improve work processes that cut across different parts of the organization. For example, a computer company may form a cross-functional team made up of members from marketing, sales, research and development, engineering, and human resources to design and develop marketing plans for a new project. In a similar vein, some innovative colleges of business are bringing together professors from various departments such as marketing, finance, management, and operations to plan and teach integrated principles of business courses. Cross-functional teams can have a life span of indeterminate length. A general rule associated with the use of crossfunctional teams is that the longer the duration, the more the team members rotate in and out. An effective cross-functional team can reduce the amount of time a project might otherwise take to complete if it consists of representatives of departments critical to the project’s completion. Many cross-functional teams run best without an established boss, as the team itself provides a basis for various individuals to exhibit leadership skills.60

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The Earliest Skunkworks

The SR-71 Blackbird is a delta-wing reconnaissance aircraft designed and built by Lockheed for the U.S. Air Force more than 40 years ago. Made almost entirely of titanium, it can fly more than 2,200 mph (Mach 3.2), at altitudes of greater than 85,000 feet. One of the most impressive characteristics of the history of the SR-71 Blackbird is that a skunkworks team designed it before the introduction of supercomputers. Originally envisioned by Lockheed designer and skunkworks founder Clarence “Kelly” Johnson, the team of engineers—using slide-rules, intelligence, and creativity—built an airplane capable of flying faster and higher than any aircraft before or since. The skunkworks team faced unique challenges in designing and building the Blackbird. The aircraft’s flight profile demanded that structural materials be able to withstand prolonged exposure to high temperatures from excessive heating. The Lockheed engineering team pioneered new inspection, test, quality, control, and manufacturing techniques. The skunkworks culture permitted, encouraged, and rewarded trying out new ideas. Creative solutions emerged from the team to develop the parts, fuselage, flight control, and fuel systems, and to engineer

materials problems and challenges. The ability to experiment, the acceptance of full responsibility, the removal of bureaucratic authority, and the complete autonomy to make decisions were contributing factors to the skunkworks team’s success— the creation of the SR-71 Blackbird. The team was allowed to focus solely on the SR-71; was empowered to do their work as they planned, scheduled, and reviewed; was not hemmed in by standard policies and procedures; and was allowed to analyze customers’ needs and requests. The lessons learned suggest that a skunkworks team that is not boxed in by rules and procedures can be very creative and successful. The SR-71 Blackbird is still unsurpassed in its design, speed, and capabilities. It is one of the most spectacular aircraft ever built. Sources: Adapted from http://www.lockheedmartin.com/aboutus/ history/SR71Blackbird.html (accessed May 20, 2010); Peter W. Merlin, “SR-71 Blackbird,” Advanced Materials and Processes, May 2003, pp. 27–29; and Michael Bommer, Renee De La Porte, and James Higgins, “Skunkworks Approach to Project Management,” Journal of Management in Engineering (January 2002): 21–28.

When establishing a cross-functional team, management should be concerned with more than just getting representation from all relevant departments. Rather, a focus should be placed on recruiting open-minded individuals who can take the long view of situations and who are not afraid of confrontation and change. It should be realized that cross-functional teams can take a longer time to develop than problem-solving teams because, initially, there may be feelings of mistrust between members from differing departments. In fact, the early stages of most cross-functional team-building efforts emphasize the building of trust and teamwork.

Skunkworks Originally created at Lockheed as a team-based approach to rapidly develop innovative aeronautical engineering products, skunkworks refers to a small team of engineers, technicians, and designers who are placed on a team that has the goal of developing innovative new products. Generally, skunkworks are part of a larger organization that shields the team from barriers or bureaucratic obstacles. Often separated from mainstream employees within the firm, this approach allows for fast communications and rapid turnaround times for experiments, and it fosters a high degree of group identity and loyalty. The first Lockheed skunkworks product is described in the OB at Work feature. In addition to Lockheed, other companies have made use of the skunkworks concept: IBM’s first profitable PC was the product of a skunkworks initiative, and Steve Jobs developed Apple’s popular Macintosh computer from a skunkworks operation. More recently, Jaguar has developed the XKR-S; a supercharged high-performance model that was quietly developed by a skunkworks team led by Mike Cross, a dynamics expert, and Russ Varney, chief program engineer.61 In sum, the skunkworks approach presents companies that embrace it with a rapid entrée into the world of innovation and high-performance teams. Although skunkworks is an interesting concept, a major challenge facing companies is how to diffuse the spirit of innovation throughout the entire organizational culture.62

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Self-Directed Work Teams The third type of team, self-directed work teams, usually comprises 10 to 15 individuals who take on the long-term responsibilities of their former supervisors while retaining their prior responsibilities. It’s important to note that teams of this type should not be considered unmanaged teams; rather, they should be viewed as differently managed teams—those run by the workers themselves. Typically, the self-directed work team holds control over the determination and assignment of work to be performed, choice of operating procedures, and allocation of resources. Some self-directed teams even select individuals who will serve on the teams and have members evaluate each other’s performance in order to assign rewards or pay incentives. Many major companies, including Boeing, Caterpillar, Cummins Engine, Digital Equipment, Ford, General Electric, LTV Steel, and Tektronix, have begun using self-directed work teams. It is estimated that today up to 50 percent of all companies, both large and small, are using some form of self-directed work teams. It should be noted that self-directed work teams are not appropriate for every organization or culture. Before designing these teams and establishing expectations for them, the organization should conduct an environmental analysis to determine if self-directed work teams are consistent with: (1) the organization’s business requirements, values, and goals; (2) the organization’s competencies; and (3) the culture in which the organization is operating.63 Success in implementing and using self-directed work teams is usually contingent on whether the organization is ready for such a team and whether teams are consistent with the cultural practices of the host country.64

Why Teams Are Formed There is no simple explanation for the increased usage of teams in organizations, especially those that are self-directed. There are a number of reasons managers of organizations form teams, including enhanced productivity, flattening of organizations, need for flexibility and quicker decisions, workforce diversity, improved quality, and increased customer satisfaction (see Figure 8.5).

Enhanced Productivity In a nutshell, the single most important reason teams are formed is to enhance organizational productivity. Organizations throughout the world have realized that team performance FIGURE 8.5 Enhanced productivity

Reasons Why Teams Are Formed

Increased customer satisfaction

Flattening organizations

Improved quality

Flexible/quicker decisions

Workforce diversity

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leads to higher productivity levels than what would be achieved by many individuals working individually. This is primarily because teams bring together complementary skills that can fall into one of three categories: technical or functional expertise, problem-solving and decision-making skills, and interpersonal skills.

Technical or Functional Skills It would make little sense for a marketer to design technical specifications for a new type of smart phone. Likewise, it would make little sense for an engineer to try to guess what features consumers find most important in making decisions as to which type of smart phone to purchase. However, teams of engineers and marketing personnel often work together to identify and design smart phones that are widely accepted by the buying public. In this case, product development groups that consist only of marketers or engineers are less likely to succeed than those with the complementary skills of both.

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Skills Teams must possess the ability to identify problems and opportunities their organization faces, to identify feasible decision alternatives and trade-offs, and to make necessary decisions leading to optimum results. Most individuals do not possess the necessary skills needed to perform all these tasks effectively. However, among a well-chosen team, it is likely that taken together, the requisite skills are present and can be used in the organization’s best interests.

Interpersonal Skills Common understanding and knowledge of problems faced and decisions needed cannot arise without effective communication and constructive conflict, which greatly depend on interpersonal skills. These include risk taking, helpful criticism, objectivity, active listening, giving the benefit of the doubt, support, and recognizing the interests and achievement of others. An effective team is made up of members who, in total, possess each of these skills. Individual members, at various times, will be called on to use their unique skills to lead the team forward. Thus, it is critical that team members are chosen based on skills and skill potential, not solely on personality. The effective use of the complementary skills teams possess can lead to extraordinary results for organizations. For example, Xerox plants using work teams are more than 25 percent more productive than conventionally organized plants. Likewise, General Motors reports more than 20 percent productivity gains in plants that use team-based manufacturing systems. Examples of this type are cropping up in news stories on a weekly basis as an increasing number of organizations realize the power unleashed by teams. Indeed, organizations as diverse as the U.S. government, Federal Express, Home Depot, and Fresh Choice restaurants have all seen their productivity benefit from the use of teams.

Flattening Organizations Businesses around the world are restructuring, reorganizing, and downsizing their companies to eliminate waste and to better serve their constituencies. As a result, there has been a continual flattening of organizations wherein entire levels of management have been eliminated. In turn, front-line teams of workers are assuming many of the tasks formerly performed by supervisors, midlevel managers, and support staff. Work teams provide the flexibility to trim unneeded forms of redundant bureaucracy. In fact, some companies believe that any function that does not support the efforts of front-line work teams can be considered an option for elimination.

Need for Flexibility and Quicker Decisions To thrive in today’s increasingly competitive markets, organizations must be capable of producing small runs of tailored products on a tight schedule to meet growing demands in

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emerging markets. This ability calls for innovative technical procedures and bright workers who are flexible and can move from assignment to assignment. Self-directed work teams have the skills, the knowledge, and the motivation to quickly adapt to change. As a result, managers who traditionally spent a large portion of their time supervising workers and fighting mini-crises can be freed up to perform more strategic-type thinking. In total, the use of teams provides the best of both worlds: long-term vision coupled with greater flexibility for quicker short-term decisions.

Workforce Diversity As the overall workforce becomes more diverse, individuals who possess different backgrounds, perspectives, values, and functional expertise are increasingly staffing work groups. Diversity in team membership is often perceived as a critical antecedent for achieving important outcomes such as enhanced group performance and member morale, satisfaction, intent to remain, and commitment. Contrary to this perception, reviews of the research into diversity management have produced mixed results.65 While some research studies have reported that heterogeneous groups outperformed less diverse groups, other studies have found the opposite effect.66 A recent research study attempted to clarify these mixed results by analyzing 108 previous studies that looked at the processes and performance of 10,632 teams.67 The study’s authors concluded that cultural diversity negatively affects team performance in the areas of task conflict and lower levels of social integration among team members. However, team diversity had some positive effects, also. Diversity on teams leads to higher levels of satisfaction and creativity. One explanation for these mixed results is that diversity in outward appearances such as gender and race does not improve group performance in and of itself, but rather diverse group members contribute unique information and perspectives, which do ultimately enhance group functioning under certain conditions.68 In addition, these mixed results may be due to the fact that earlier research often treated team diversity as a singular concept when in fact it likely comprises several subcomponents.69 In studying 92 work groups in a field research study, Jehn and associates defined the concept of diversity as comprising three types: informational diversity, social category diversity, and value diversity. These different types of diversity displayed unique effects on important work/group outcomes. High levels of information diversity—the differences in knowledge bases and perspectives that members bring to a group—have been shown to contribute to overall group effectiveness. High levels of social category diversity, the explicit differences among group members in terms of race, gender, and ethnicity, were associated with higher levels of member morale—satisfaction, intent to remain, commitment, and perceived performance. In contrast, groups with high levels of value diversity— members’ opinions about what the group’s real task, goal, or mission should be—may experience major decreases in both group performance and employee morale.70 Based on research highlighted here, managers who are contemplating whether or how best to reorganize their human resources into teams or work groups should not just assume that team diversity will automatically lead to higher performance. Instead, careful matching of potential members’ informational contributions, social backgrounds, and value preferences should be made so as to help ensure that teams live up to their potential and deliver expected results. In addition, organizations can help prepare employees to deal effectively with group diversity issues. The next OB at Work feature illustrates the role that group diversity can play in the quality of the decisions made by groups.

Improved Quality Individuals can and will assume responsibility only for the distinct component or part of a project or product they work on. On the other hand, teams assume responsibility for entire projects

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Group Diversity: Some Points to Consider

When it comes to group decision-making processes, diversity generally helps generate better, fairer, and more thorough decisions. Dr. Samuel R. Sommers of Tufts University conducted a study of racial diversity and the performance of decision-making groups. He found that in a mock jury, placing white jurors in diverse groups raised their performance level, encouraging them to cite more facts, make fewer mistakes, deliberate longer, and conduct broader and more accurate discussions— compared with peers in all-white mock juries. Racially mixed juries were much more willing to discuss issues of racism. Sommers was interviewed about his study and its implications for other groups facing controversial issues. Interviewer: Your study observed the behavior of mock jurors in an all-white and racially mixed juries as they deliberated a case involving a black defendant. The results were interesting and somewhat unexpected. What did you discover? Sommers: Traditional assumptions about how diversity influences decision making focus on the idea that having nonwhite individuals in a group will lead to different perspectives being raised in the group. But one of the interesting and somewhat counterintuitive findings that the study produced is that white participants behave very differently when they’re in diverse settings versus in all-white settings. [In diverse settings] they raise more facts regarding the trial. They make fewer factual inaccuracies in their statements about the case. Interviewer: Does group diversity act as a performance enhancer? Sommers: At the group level, that seems to be a reasonable conclusion. I think people would agree that you want juries to raise a wide range of perspectives and information. You want them to be true to the facts of the case and accurate in their fact-finding. You want them to be open-minded. And on all those counts, diverse groups seem to be doing better than all-white groups. When society talks about diversity, much of the conversation focuses on ideology and the morality and constitutionality of how to achieve diversity. I think that looking at the observable effects of diversity on a group’s performance is a really fruitful way to get a sense of what diversity really means. Interviewer: Diversity appears to raise the awareness levels and attention to detail of white jurors; does it have a similar effect on black jurors? Sommers: Would a diverse group perform better than an allblack group? You could probably predict that yes, it would. But we don’t know that from this study. We didn’t study all-black groups, but it’s a very important question. Being in a diverse setting has a motivational influence on the white jurors; it gets

them scrutinizing information more carefully knowing that they’re going to have to discuss it with a diverse group. Interviewer: In your study, some of the changes in the behavior of white jurors took place before there was any interaction between the jurors. Was it simply a question of seeing the make-up of the group? Sommers: Absolutely. Before they even open their mouths or have any form of interaction at all, the racial composition of the group seems to be exerting an influence on the white jurors. Interviewer: So, do you think that we operate under different default settings depending upon who’s in our group? Sommers: I do think you could make a case, and again we need to do further studies to test this, that in the all-white setting— maybe the default setting for the white participants—they’re a little bit more relaxed or content to rely on cognitive shortcuts. They don’t engage the information at quite the same level that they feel they need to when they’re in a diverse group. So, I think that’s a really provocative idea that somehow, at least when discussing a race-related issue, just knowing who you’re going to be interacting with can very well lead you to change the informationprocessing strategy that you use. Interviewer: How does this research extend beyond jury composition? Sommers: This should be relevant in any context in which you have groups of people making decisions and have issues of diversity at the forefront of the organization’s mind. Whether you’re talking about the classroom, the boardroom and the workplace, or decision-making committees in a variety of different fields, there are potential implications. Again, the study was run in a legal setting, but I think the issues that it raises are important for all group types. The fact that whites behave very differently in an all-white versus a diverse setting, and at least in this study, seem to be performing better in the diverse setting, has some profound implications and potential usefulness. But I don’t think there’s a simple conclusion here of diversity always leading groups to do better. There’s research that suggests that there are potential downsides to diversity, many of them relating to morale and group cohesion. Sometimes those are overcome with time, but sometimes they’re hard to overcome. So, it’s a much more nuanced issue, but I do think that studying it from a performance perspective is a really useful way to go. Sources: Adapted from Samuel R. Sommers, “On Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making: Identifying Multiple Effects of Racial Composition on Jury Deliberations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90(2006): 597–617; and Anne Sasso, “Group Diversity: Mock Juries Reveal Surprising Effects of Diversity on Groups,” MiSciNet, May 5, 2006, accessed at http:sciencecareers.sciencemag.org on May 10, 2006.

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or products. When teams assume responsibility, they develop an appreciation of the nuances associated with all aspects of their work. As a result, it becomes a matter of professional pride for team members to search out and act on opportunities for quality improvements. In addition, because team members perform both technical and administrative functions, they gain the commitment, experience, and skills required to improve the interface between the two functions. In contrast, team members who act on their own behalf and fail to work together for the overall “good” of the team can decrease the overall quality of the team effort.71

Increased Customer Satisfaction Customer satisfaction is the key to organizational success for it is the satisfied customer who accounts for the repeat business that organizations need to survive and thrive. The energy, commitment, and flexibility associated with work teams promote customer satisfaction through quick response and improved quality.

Obstacles to Effective Teams Organizations have increasingly turned to teams to improve the quality and timeliness of decision making, to achieve more cost-effective work processes, and to increase the morale and creativity of employees.72 Unfortunately, this transition to teams has not been a smooth one for many organizations.73 One of the major problems is that some companies are “jumping on the bandwagon” and placing people into teams without fully assessing whether a team is needed in the first place.74 This “teamwork by force” can be counterproductive and result in employee backlash directed toward the increased use of teams in their company.75 Teams should be used when the following factors are present: • A complicated problem that requires employees with diverse talents and functional expertise. • Goals focus on improving an existing product, service, or process. • A task that lends itself to a division of labor. • A situation in which making the wrong decision is too costly.76 Before placing employees into teams, decision makers at companies should ask themselves the following questions: • • • •

Can the work be performed better by more than one individual? Does the work lend itself to a common set of goals for the members in a team? Are members of the team interdependent? Do members have the appropriate skill mix to excel?77

If the answers to these questions are yes, then it would make sense to organize employees into work teams. Another problem with teams occurs when they are created in a vacuum without the simultaneous addition of any corresponding support systems.78 For example, if a company wants to achieve greater efficiencies through the use of virtual teams, then it needs to ensure that the proper technology infrastructure (e.g., instant messaging) is in place to support these geographically dispersed teams. In addition, changes in the compensation system are also required. For example, organizations that do not want to make major changes to their compensation system can add a section to individuals’ performance appraisals that assesses teamwork skills and attitudes. The leadership style of team leaders can also be a problem to the effective functioning of teams. For example, team leaders who display too much of an autocratic leadership style may actually undermine team productivity by ignoring or downplaying the contributions and

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ideas of team members. Also, team leaders who constantly seek compromise may end up encouraging average solutions and outcomes. In contrast, those leaders who encourage integrative or synergistic teamwork solutions in which members’ views and contributions are combined in a unique way produce a team solution that is bigger than the sum of members’ individual contributions.79 Also, team leaders who have excellent timing regarding when and how to assist team members are helpful in enhancing their teams’ effectiveness.80 Although certainly not a cure-all for organizational decision-making and problem-solving dilemmas, when used and managed properly, teams can contribute to increases in productivity, morale, and innovation.81

Building Effective Teams Teams are incapable of performing miracles on their own. Much like individuals, teams need the nurturing and support of management. Toward this end, there are several requirements for building effective teams. These requirements include top-level commitment and provision of clear goals; management–employee trust; willingness to take risks and share information; and time, resources, and a commitment to training. Each of these factors is needed to create effective and focused work teams. Team leaders must play a role in ensuring that these factors are in place and continually updated.

Top-Level Commitment and Provision of Clear Goals Top-performing organizations have leaders who are deeply committed to the team concept. Through their time, attention, and other behavior, leaders continually express and reinforce the notion that the use of teams is the only means to succeed. Truly committed leaders inspire confidence that team performance is the single best path to economic and personal fulfillment. When teams are motivated to pursue clear and difficult goals, superior performance can be achieved.82

Management–Employee Trust Managers must trust that, given time, workers will actively support the massive changes in responsibility and authority bestowed on them as team members. Conversely, employees need to know and believe that management is serious about wanting people (as team members) to take risks and express their opinions and that the formation of teams is not just a new mechanism to gain additional work from employees. On a team level, there must exist a high level of trust among members. Members must believe in integrity, character, and abilities. As we are all well aware, trust takes a long time to build and can be jeopardized by a single careless action. The climate of trust within a team seems to be highly dependent on members’ perceptions of management’s trust of the group as a whole and therefore the level of management trust can serve to enhance or detract from members’ trust. Organizations that value employee honesty, openness, and collaborative processes with high employee involvement are more likely to stimulate trusting cultures than those who do not.

Willingness to Take Risks and Share Information Teams, by acknowledging their existence, must accept the willingness to take risks, while simultaneously being held accountable for their actions. In this respect, the risk of self-direction is personal. Workers and supervisors must be willing to trade their safer, traditional jobs for ones that are less clear-cut and more demanding, time consuming, and challenging. Management must accept the notion that their daily routines and activities will probably be changed forever as teams begin to assume more responsibility for the running of the organization. In other words, change, once started, is difficult to reverse.

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Team-Building Pointers (Learning from Geese)

Fact #1—As each bird flaps its wings, it creates uplift for the bird following. By flying in a “V” formation, the whole flock adds 71 percent greater flying range than if one bird flew alone. Lesson Learned—People who share a common direction and sense of community can get where they are going quicker and easier because they are traveling on the strength of one another. Fact #2—Whenever a goose falls out of formation, it suddenly feels the drag and resistance of trying to fly alone and quickly gets back into formation to take advantage of the lifting power of the bird immediately in front. Lesson Learned—If we have as much sense as geese, we will stay in formation with those who are ahead of where we want to go and be willing to accept their help as well as give ours to others. Fact #3—When the lead goose gets tired, it rotates back into the formation and another goose flies at the point position.

Lesson Learned—It pays to take turns doing the hard tasks and sharing leadership. Fact #4—The geese in formation honk from behind to encourage those up front to keep up their speed. Lesson Learned—We need to make sure our honking from behind is encouraging and not something else. Fact #5—When a goose gets sick or wounded or shot down, two geese drop out of formation and follow it down to help and protect it. They stay with it until it is able to fly again, or dies. Then they launch out on their own with another formation, or they catch up with their flock. Lesson Learned—If we have as much sense as geese do, we too will stand by each other in difficult times as well as when we are strong. Source: Author unknown.

Likewise, if teams are to take responsibility and assume risk in making decisions, they will need detailed information about the organization’s overall operations, including financial information concerning individual members and departments. To manage themselves, teams need information that was once the exclusive domain of management. Armed with information, it is inevitable that teams will begin asking questions of management that, in turn, will lead to revealing more sensitive, detailed information. As teams evolve, the point is eventually reached where team knowledge of certain facets of operations is as great or greater than management’s. For teams to succeed, management must be willing to accept and actively encourage this knowledge equality.

Time, Resources, and a Commitment to Training Successful work teams can take months, even years, to mature to a level commensurate with the responsibilities they must take on. Management needs to recognize that the rewards of self-direction and self-management depend on massive planning, intense and prompt access to resources (financial and other), and often the physical redesigning of plants and offices. Internally, the team needs to be provided with a sound and understandable measuring system with which team members can evaluate their performance, an incentive system that rewards team activities, and supportive management that encourages team-building exercises. In addition, work teams can either succeed or fail based on the amount, intensity, and duration of training they receive. In working as a team, individuals have to put aside personal privileges and contribute to the group well-being. For many individuals this represents a massive change from either just giving or receiving orders. Team members therefore need proper, long-term training in the interpersonal, administrative, and technical skills that may counteract habits, attitudes, and work styles left over from years of employment in a more traditionally run organization. The OB at Work feature presents five lessons about team building that are simply points to reflect upon when thinking about what it takes to build and nurture an effective team.

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Intergroup Behavior and Conflict Few trends have so affected organizations as that of the movement toward group-based systems. The successful transition from a time where employees worked alone to one where individuals are dependent on others require employees to share information, cooperate with each other, address personal differences, and share a desire to work for the greater good of the entire organization. The emphasis in this chapter has been on this intragroup behavior. An equally important characteristic of groups is that they frequently conflict with other groups in the organization. Groups conflict with others for many reasons, and the resulting outcomes can either be good or negative for the organization. What happens between groups (intergroup behavior) is the subject of the next chapter.

The Role Concept role An organized set of behaviors expected of an individual in a specific position.

The concept of role was discussed earlier as being vital to understanding group behavior. Role refers to the expected behavior patterns attributed to a particular position in an organization. The roles of physician and patient are familiar to everyone. Those roles are culturally defined expectations associated with particular positions. A role may include attitudes and values as well as specific kinds of behavior. It is what an individual must do to validate her occupancy of a particular position. In other words, what kind of physician or patient an individual is depends a great deal on how he performs the culturally defined role associated with the position. Consider your own perceptions of the roles associated with law enforcement officers, military officers, politicians, college professors, and business executives. In a formal organization, every position has certain activities that are expected. These activities constitute the role for the position from the standpoint of the organization. The organization develops job descriptions that define the activities of each particular position and how it relates to other positions in the organization. However, for both formal (task and command) and informal (interest and friendship) groups, roles may not be set forth explicitly and yet are clearly understood by group members. For example, members of the marketing department in a bank may know that only the director of marketing represents the bank at national conventions and that they have no chance of attending, even though this has never been explicitly stated. Thus, whether they are formally or informally established, status hierarchies and accompanying roles are integral parts of every organization.

Multiple Roles and Role Sets multiple roles Roles performed simultaneously because the individual holds many positions in a variety of organizations and groups.

role set Others’ expectations for behavior of a person in a particular role.

Most of us perform multiple roles. We occupy many different positions in a variety of organizations (home, work, church, civic groups, and so forth). Within each of these organizations, we occupy and perform certain roles. We may simultaneously be playing the role of parent, mate, supervisor, and subordinate. Each position involves different role relationships. For example, the position of college professor involves not only the role of teacher in relation to students but also numerous other roles relating the position to administrators, peers, the community, and alumni. Each group may expect different things: students may expect good classroom performance, research, and publication; the college community may expect community service; and alumni may expect help in recruiting students and athletes. This we term role set. A role set refers to others’ expectations for the behavior of the individual in the particular role. The more expectations, the more complex is the role set.

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Multiple roles refer to different roles, while role set refers to the different expectations associated with one role. Therefore, an individual involved in many different roles, each with a complex role set, faces the ultimate in complexity of individual behavior. Multiple roles and role sets are important concepts because of possible complications that make defining specific roles extremely difficult, especially in organizational settings. This can often result in role conflict for the individual.

Role Perception Different individuals have different perceptions of the behavior associated with a given role. In an organizational setting, accuracy in role perception can have a definite impact on performance. This matter is further complicated because, within the organization, there may be different perceptions of the same role: the formal organization’s, the group’s, and the individual’s. For example, a college dean, the students, and the professors themselves have perceptions of the role of professor. But as we saw in the preceding discussion of role sets, students’ perceptions of the role of a professor may be very different from college administrators’ perceptions. These differences in perception increase even further the possibility of role conflict.

Role Conflict

role conflict Occurs when an individual’s compliance with one set of expectations conflicts with compliance with another set of expectations.

Because of the multiplicity of roles and role sets, an individual may face a complex situation of simultaneous role requirements where performance of one role precludes the performance of the others. As a group member, the individual faces tremendous pressures to give up his self-identity and accountability in exchange for in-group loyalty.83 When this occurs, the individual faces a situation known as role conflict. Several forms of this conflict can occur in organizations.

Person–Role Conflict Person–role conflict occurs when role requirements violate the basic values, attitudes, and needs of the individual occupying the position. A supervisor who finds it difficult to dismiss a subordinate with a family and an executive who resigns rather than engage in some unethical activity reflect person–role conflict.84

Intrarole Conflict Intrarole conflict occurs when different individuals define a role according to different sets of expectations, making it impossible for the person occupying the role to satisfy all of them. This is more likely to occur when a given role has a complex role set (many different role relationships). The supervisor in an industrial situation has a rather complex role set and thus may face intrarole conflict. On the one hand, top management has a set of expectations that stresses the supervisor’s role in the management hierarchy. On the other hand, the supervisor may have close friendship ties with members of the command group who may be former working peers. This is why supervisors are often described as being “stuck in the middle.”

Interrole Conflict Interrole conflict can result from facing multiple roles.85 It occurs because individuals simultaneously perform many roles, some with conflicting expectations. A scientist in a chemical plant who’s also a member of a management group might experience role conflict of this kind. In such a situation, the scientist may be expected to behave in accordance with the expectations of management as well as the expectations of professional chemists.

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The next chapter describes how this type of role conflict often causes conflict between groups in many organizations.

Results of Role Conflict An individual confronted with role conflict experiences psychological stress that may result in emotional problems and indecision.86 Research has shown that role conflict occurs frequently and with negative effects on performance over a wide spectrum of occupations and contexts.87 While managers can do little to avoid certain kinds of role conflict, many kinds can be minimized. For example, some role conflict (especially intrarole conflict) can result from violations of the classical principles of chain of command and unity of command. In other words, when individuals are faced with conflicting expectations or demands from two or more sources, the likely result is a decline in performance. In addition, interrole conflict can be generated by conflicting expectations of formal or informal groups, with results similar to those of intrarole conflict. Thus, a highly cohesive group whose goals are not consistent with those of the formal organization can cause a great deal of interrole conflict for its members.

Summary of Key Points

• A group consists of employees who interact in such a manner that the behavior or performance of one group member is influenced by the behavior or performance of other group members. • By being aware of group characteristics and behaviors, managers can be prepared for the potential positive and negative results of group activities. A manager can proactively intervene to modify the perceptions, attitudes, and motivations that influence the results. • People are attracted to groups because of their potential for satisfying needs, their physical proximity and attraction, and the appeal of group goals and activities. In essence, people are attracted to one another; that is a natural process. • Groups develop at different rates and with unique patterns that depend on the task, the setting, the members’ individual characteristics and behavior patterns, and the manager’s style of managing. • Characteristics of groups include structure, status hierarchy, roles, norms, leadership, cohesiveness, and intergroup conflict. These characteristics pervade all groups. In an informal group, they emerge from within the unit; in a formal group, they are established by the managerial process. • Group characteristics provide a degree of predictability for the members that is important to the group and to the outside (e.g., management, other groups). An unstable or unpredictable group is a problem for its members and for others who interact with it. • Each group possesses some degree of cohesiveness. This attractiveness of the group can be a powerful force in influencing individual behavior and performance. • Research studies indicate that cohesive groups can formulate goals and norms that may not agree with those of management. When a group’s goals and norms are incongruent with the organization’s, some form of managerial intervention is necessary. • Groupthink is the desire among cohesive group members to be in agreement, which supersedes considering solutions to problems or situations that are controversial or in which unanimous agreement is not possible. • Teams are a special type of task group. Three common categories of teams exist in organizations: (1) problem-solving teams, (2) cross-functional teams, and (3) self-directed work teams.

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